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PERLFUNC(1) Perl Programmers Reference Guide PERLFUNC(1)
NAME
perlfunc - Perl builtin functions
DESCRIPTION
The functions in this section can serve as terms in an expression. They fall into
two major categories: list operators and named unary operators. These differ in
their precedence relationship with a following comma. (See the precedence table in
perlop.) List operators take more than one argument, while unary operators can
never take more than one argument. Thus, a comma terminates the argument of a
unary operator, but merely separates the arguments of a list operator. A unary
operator generally provides a scalar context to its argument, while a list operator
may provide either scalar or list contexts for its arguments. If it does both, the
scalar arguments will be first, and the list argument will follow. (Note that
there can ever be only one such list argument.) For instance, splice() has three
scalar arguments followed by a list, whereas gethostbyname() has four scalar argu-
ments.
In the syntax descriptions that follow, list operators that expect a list (and pro-
vide list context for the elements of the list) are shown with LIST as an argument.
Such a list may consist of any combination of scalar arguments or list values; the
list values will be included in the list as if each individual element were inter-
polated at that point in the list, forming a longer single-dimensional list value.
Commas should separate elements of the LIST.
Any function in the list below may be used either with or without parentheses
around its arguments. (The syntax descriptions omit the parentheses.) If you use
the parentheses, the simple (but occasionally surprising) rule is this: It looks
like a function, therefore it is a function, and precedence doesn't matter. Other-
wise it's a list operator or unary operator, and precedence does matter. And
whitespace between the function and left parenthesis doesn't count--so you need to
be careful sometimes:
print 1+2+4; # Prints 7.
print(1+2) + 4; # Prints 3.
print (1+2)+4; # Also prints 3!
print +(1+2)+4; # Prints 7.
print ((1+2)+4); # Prints 7.
If you run Perl with the -w switch it can warn you about this. For example, the
third line above produces:
print (...) interpreted as function at - line 1.
Useless use of integer addition in void context at - line 1.
A few functions take no arguments at all, and therefore work as neither unary nor
list operators. These include such functions as "time" and "endpwent". For exam-
ple, "time+86_400" always means "time() + 86_400".
For functions that can be used in either a scalar or list context, nonabortive
failure is generally indicated in a scalar context by returning the undefined
value, and in a list context by returning the null list.
Remember the following important rule: There is no rule that relates the behavior
of an expression in list context to its behavior in scalar context, or vice versa.
It might do two totally different things. Each operator and function decides which
sort of value it would be most appropriate to return in scalar context. Some oper-
ators return the length of the list that would have been returned in list context.
Some operators return the first value in the list. Some operators return the last
value in the list. Some operators return a count of successful operations. In
general, they do what you want, unless you want consistency.
A named array in scalar context is quite different from what would at first glance
appear to be a list in scalar context. You can't get a list like "(1,2,3)" into
being in scalar context, because the compiler knows the context at compile time.
It would generate the scalar comma operator there, not the list construction ver-
sion of the comma. That means it was never a list to start with.
In general, functions in Perl that serve as wrappers for system calls of the same
name (like chown(2), fork(2), closedir(2), etc.) all return true when they succeed
and "undef" otherwise, as is usually mentioned in the descriptions below. This is
different from the C interfaces, which return "-1" on failure. Exceptions to this
rule are "wait", "waitpid", and "syscall". System calls also set the special $!
variable on failure. Other functions do not, except accidentally.
Perl Functions by Category
Here are Perl's functions (including things that look like functions, like some
keywords and named operators) arranged by category. Some functions appear in more
than one place.
Functions for SCALARs or strings
"chomp", "chop", "chr", "crypt", "hex", "index", "lc", "lcfirst", "length",
"oct", "ord", "pack", "q/STRING/", "qq/STRING/", "reverse", "rindex",
"sprintf", "substr", "tr///", "uc", "ucfirst", "y///"
Regular expressions and pattern matching
"m//", "pos", "quotemeta", "s///", "split", "study", "qr//"
Numeric functions
"abs", "atan2", "cos", "exp", "hex", "int", "log", "oct", "rand", "sin",
"sqrt", "srand"
Functions for real @ARRAYs
"pop", "push", "shift", "splice", "unshift"
Functions for list data
"grep", "join", "map", "qw/STRING/", "reverse", "sort", "unpack"
Functions for real %HASHes
"delete", "each", "exists", "keys", "values"
Input and output functions
"binmode", "close", "closedir", "dbmclose", "dbmopen", "die", "eof", "fileno",
"flock", "format", "getc", "print", "printf", "read", "readdir", "rewinddir",
"seek", "seekdir", "select", "syscall", "sysread", "sysseek", "syswrite",
"tell", "telldir", "truncate", "warn", "write"
Functions for fixed length data or records
"pack", "read", "syscall", "sysread", "syswrite", "unpack", "vec"
Functions for filehandles, files, or directories
"-X", "chdir", "chmod", "chown", "chroot", "fcntl", "glob", "ioctl", "link",
"lstat", "mkdir", "open", "opendir", "readlink", "rename", "rmdir", "stat",
"symlink", "sysopen", "umask", "unlink", "utime"
Keywords related to the control flow of your Perl program
"caller", "continue", "die", "do", "dump", "eval", "exit", "goto", "last",
"next", "redo", "return", "sub", "wantarray"
Keywords related to scoping
"caller", "import", "local", "my", "our", "package", "use"
Miscellaneous functions
"defined", "dump", "eval", "formline", "local", "my", "our", "reset", "scalar",
"undef", "wantarray"
Functions for processes and process groups
"alarm", "exec", "fork", "getpgrp", "getppid", "getpriority", "kill", "pipe",
"qx/STRING/", "setpgrp", "setpriority", "sleep", "system", "times", "wait",
"waitpid"
Keywords related to perl modules
"do", "import", "no", "package", "require", "use"
Keywords related to classes and object-orientedness
"bless", "dbmclose", "dbmopen", "package", "ref", "tie", "tied", "untie", "use"
Low-level socket functions
"accept", "bind", "connect", "getpeername", "getsockname", "getsockopt", "lis-
ten", "recv", "send", "setsockopt", "shutdown", "socket", "socketpair"
System V interprocess communication functions
"msgctl", "msgget", "msgrcv", "msgsnd", "semctl", "semget", "semop", "shmctl",
"shmget", "shmread", "shmwrite"
Fetching user and group info
"endgrent", "endhostent", "endnetent", "endpwent", "getgrent", "getgrgid",
"getgrnam", "getlogin", "getpwent", "getpwnam", "getpwuid", "setgrent", "setp-
went"
Fetching network info
"endprotoent", "endservent", "gethostbyaddr", "gethostbyname", "gethostent",
"getnetbyaddr", "getnetbyname", "getnetent", "getprotobyname", "getprotobynum-
ber", "getprotoent", "getservbyname", "getservbyport", "getservent", "sethos-
tent", "setnetent", "setprotoent", "setservent"
Time-related functions
"gmtime", "localtime", "time", "times"
Functions new in perl5
"abs", "bless", "chomp", "chr", "exists", "formline", "glob", "import", "lc",
"lcfirst", "map", "my", "no", "our", "prototype", "qx", "qw", "readline",
"readpipe", "ref", "sub*", "sysopen", "tie", "tied", "uc", "ucfirst", "untie",
"use"
* - "sub" was a keyword in perl4, but in perl5 it is an operator, which can be
used in expressions.
Functions obsoleted in perl5
"dbmclose", "dbmopen"
Portability
Perl was born in Unix and can therefore access all common Unix system calls. In
non-Unix environments, the functionality of some Unix system calls may not be
available, or details of the available functionality may differ slightly. The Perl
functions affected by this are:
"-X", "binmode", "chmod", "chown", "chroot", "crypt", "dbmclose", "dbmopen",
"dump", "endgrent", "endhostent", "endnetent", "endprotoent", "endpwent", "endser-
vent", "exec", "fcntl", "flock", "fork", "getgrent", "getgrgid", "gethostbyname",
"gethostent", "getlogin", "getnetbyaddr", "getnetbyname", "getnetent", "getppid",
"getpgrp", "getpriority", "getprotobynumber", "getprotoent", "getpwent", "getpw-
nam", "getpwuid", "getservbyport", "getservent", "getsockopt", "glob", "ioctl",
"kill", "link", "lstat", "msgctl", "msgget", "msgrcv", "msgsnd", "open", "pipe",
"readlink", "rename", "select", "semctl", "semget", "semop", "setgrent", "sethos-
tent", "setnetent", "setpgrp", "setpriority", "setprotoent", "setpwent", "setser-
vent", "setsockopt", "shmctl", "shmget", "shmread", "shmwrite", "socket", "socket-
pair", "stat", "symlink", "syscall", "sysopen", "system", "times", "truncate",
"umask", "unlink", "utime", "wait", "waitpid"
For more information about the portability of these functions, see perlport and
other available platform-specific documentation.
Alphabetical Listing of Perl Functions
-X FILEHANDLE
-X EXPR
-X A file test, where X is one of the letters listed below. This unary opera-
tor takes one argument, either a filename or a filehandle, and tests the
associated file to see if something is true about it. If the argument is
omitted, tests $_, except for "-t", which tests STDIN. Unless otherwise
documented, it returns 1 for true and '' for false, or the undefined value
if the file doesn't exist. Despite the funny names, precedence is the same
as any other named unary operator, and the argument may be parenthesized
like any other unary operator. The operator may be any of:
-r File is readable by effective uid/gid.
-w File is writable by effective uid/gid.
-x File is executable by effective uid/gid.
-o File is owned by effective uid.
-R File is readable by real uid/gid.
-W File is writable by real uid/gid.
-X File is executable by real uid/gid.
-O File is owned by real uid.
-e File exists.
-z File has zero size (is empty).
-s File has nonzero size (returns size in bytes).
-f File is a plain file.
-d File is a directory.
-l File is a symbolic link.
-p File is a named pipe (FIFO), or Filehandle is a pipe.
-S File is a socket.
-b File is a block special file.
-c File is a character special file.
-t Filehandle is opened to a tty.
-u File has setuid bit set.
-g File has setgid bit set.
-k File has sticky bit set.
-T File is an ASCII text file (heuristic guess).
-B File is a "binary" file (opposite of -T).
-M Script start time minus file modification time, in days.
-A Same for access time.
-C Same for inode change time (Unix, may differ for other platforms)
Example:
while (<>) {
chomp;
next unless -f $_; # ignore specials
#...
}
The interpretation of the file permission operators "-r", "-R", "-w", "-W",
"-x", and "-X" is by default based solely on the mode of the file and the
uids and gids of the user. There may be other reasons you can't actually
read, write, or execute the file. Such reasons may be for example network
filesystem access controls, ACLs (access control lists), read-only filesys-
tems, and unrecognized executable formats.
Also note that, for the superuser on the local filesystems, the "-r", "-R",
"-w", and "-W" tests always return 1, and "-x" and "-X" return 1 if any
execute bit is set in the mode. Scripts run by the superuser may thus need
to do a stat() to determine the actual mode of the file, or temporarily set
their effective uid to something else.
If you are using ACLs, there is a pragma called "filetest" that may produce
more accurate results than the bare stat() mode bits. When under the "use
filetest 'access'" the above-mentioned filetests will test whether the per-
mission can (not) be granted using the access() family of system calls.
Also note that the "-x" and "-X" may under this pragma return true even if
there are no execute permission bits set (nor any extra execute permission
ACLs). This strangeness is due to the underlying system calls' defini-
tions. Read the documentation for the "filetest" pragma for more informa-
tion.
Note that "-s/a/b/" does not do a negated substitution. Saying
"-exp($foo)" still works as expected, however--only single letters follow-
ing a minus are interpreted as file tests.
The "-T" and "-B" switches work as follows. The first block or so of the
file is examined for odd characters such as strange control codes or char-
acters with the high bit set. If too many strange characters (>30%) are
found, it's a "-B" file; otherwise it's a "-T" file. Also, any file con-
taining null in the first block is considered a binary file. If "-T" or
"-B" is used on a filehandle, the current IO buffer is examined rather than
the first block. Both "-T" and "-B" return true on a null file, or a file
at EOF when testing a filehandle. Because you have to read a file to do
the "-T" test, on most occasions you want to use a "-f" against the file
first, as in "next unless -f $file && -T $file".
If any of the file tests (or either the "stat" or "lstat" operators) are
given the special filehandle consisting of a solitary underline, then the
stat structure of the previous file test (or stat operator) is used, saving
a system call. (This doesn't work with "-t", and you need to remember that
lstat() and "-l" will leave values in the stat structure for the symbolic
link, not the real file.) (Also, if the stat buffer was filled by an
"lstat" call, "-T" and "-B" will reset it with the results of "stat _").
Example:
print "Can do.\n" if -r $a || -w _ || -x _;
stat($filename);
print "Readable\n" if -r _;
print "Writable\n" if -w _;
print "Executable\n" if -x _;
print "Setuid\n" if -u _;
print "Setgid\n" if -g _;
print "Sticky\n" if -k _;
print "Text\n" if -T _;
print "Binary\n" if -B _;
abs VALUE
abs Returns the absolute value of its argument. If VALUE is omitted, uses $_.
accept NEWSOCKET,GENERICSOCKET
Accepts an incoming socket connect, just as the accept(2) system call does.
Returns the packed address if it succeeded, false otherwise. See the exam-
ple in "Sockets: Client/Server Communication" in perlipc.
On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will be set
for the newly opened file descriptor, as determined by the value of $^F.
See "$^F" in perlvar.
alarm SECONDS
alarm Arranges to have a SIGALRM delivered to this process after the specified
number of wallclock seconds has elapsed. If SECONDS is not specified, the
value stored in $_ is used. (On some machines, unfortunately, the elapsed
time may be up to one second less or more than you specified because of how
seconds are counted, and process scheduling may delay the delivery of the
signal even further.)
Only one timer may be counting at once. Each call disables the previous
timer, and an argument of 0 may be supplied to cancel the previous timer
without starting a new one. The returned value is the amount of time
remaining on the previous timer.
For delays of finer granularity than one second, you may use Perl's four-
argument version of select() leaving the first three arguments undefined,
or you might be able to use the "syscall" interface to access setitimer(2)
if your system supports it. The Time::HiRes module (from CPAN, and start-
ing from Perl 5.8 part of the standard distribution) may also prove useful.
It is usually a mistake to intermix "alarm" and "sleep" calls. ("sleep"
may be internally implemented in your system with "alarm")
If you want to use "alarm" to time out a system call you need to use an
"eval"/"die" pair. You can't rely on the alarm causing the system call to
fail with $! set to "EINTR" because Perl sets up signal handlers to restart
system calls on some systems. Using "eval"/"die" always works, modulo the
caveats given in "Signals" in perlipc.
eval {
local $SIG{ALRM} = sub { die "alarm\n" }; # NB: \n required
alarm $timeout;
$nread = sysread SOCKET, $buffer, $size;
alarm 0;
};
if ($@) {
die unless $@ eq "alarm\n"; # propagate unexpected errors
# timed out
}
else {
# didn't
}
For more information see perlipc.
atan2 Y,X
Returns the arctangent of Y/X in the range -PI to PI.
For the tangent operation, you may use the "Math::Trig::tan" function, or
use the familiar relation:
sub tan { sin($_[0]) / cos($_[0]) }
Note that atan2(0, 0) is not well-defined.
bind SOCKET,NAME
Binds a network address to a socket, just as the bind system call does.
Returns true if it succeeded, false otherwise. NAME should be a packed
address of the appropriate type for the socket. See the examples in "Sock-
ets: Client/Server Communication" in perlipc.
binmode FILEHANDLE, LAYER
binmode FILEHANDLE
Arranges for FILEHANDLE to be read or written in "binary" or "text" mode on
systems where the run-time libraries distinguish between binary and text
files. If FILEHANDLE is an expression, the value is taken as the name of
the filehandle. Returns true on success, otherwise it returns "undef" and
sets $! (errno).
On some systems (in general, DOS and Windows-based systems) binmode() is
necessary when you're not working with a text file. For the sake of porta-
bility it is a good idea to always use it when appropriate, and to never
use it when it isn't appropriate. Also, people can set their I/O to be by
default UTF-8 encoded Unicode, not bytes.
In other words: regardless of platform, use binmode() on binary data, like
for example images.
If LAYER is present it is a single string, but may contain multiple direc-
tives. The directives alter the behaviour of the file handle. When LAYER
is present using binmode on text file makes sense.
If LAYER is omitted or specified as ":raw" the filehandle is made suitable
for passing binary data. This includes turning off possible CRLF transla-
tion and marking it as bytes (as opposed to Unicode characters). Note
that, despite what may be implied in "Programming Perl" (the Camel) or
elsewhere, ":raw" is not the simply inverse of ":crlf" -- other layers
which would affect binary nature of the stream are also disabled. See Per-
lIO, perlrun and the discussion about the PERLIO environment variable.
The ":bytes", ":crlf", and ":utf8", and any other directives of the form
":...", are called I/O layers. The "open" pragma can be used to establish
default I/O layers. See open.
The LAYER parameter of the binmode() function is described as "DISCIPLINE"
in "Programming Perl, 3rd Edition". However, since the publishing of this
book, by many known as "Camel III", the consensus of the naming of this
functionality has moved from "discipline" to "layer". All documentation of
this version of Perl therefore refers to "layers" rather than to "disci-
plines". Now back to the regularly scheduled documentation...
To mark FILEHANDLE as UTF-8, use ":utf8".
In general, binmode() should be called after open() but before any I/O is
done on the filehandle. Calling binmode() will normally flush any pending
buffered output data (and perhaps pending input data) on the handle. An
exception to this is the ":encoding" layer that changes the default charac-
ter encoding of the handle, see open. The ":encoding" layer sometimes
needs to be called in mid-stream, and it doesn't flush the stream. The
":encoding" also implicitly pushes on top of itself the ":utf8" layer
because internally Perl will operate on UTF-8 encoded Unicode characters.
The operating system, device drivers, C libraries, and Perl run-time system
all work together to let the programmer treat a single character ("\n") as
the line terminator, irrespective of the external representation. On many
operating systems, the native text file representation matches the internal
representation, but on some platforms the external representation of "\n"
is made up of more than one character.
Mac OS, all variants of Unix, and Stream_LF files on VMS use a single char-
acter to end each line in the external representation of text (even though
that single character is CARRIAGE RETURN on Mac OS and LINE FEED on Unix
and most VMS files). In other systems like OS/2, DOS and the various fla-
vors of MS-Windows your program sees a "\n" as a simple "\cJ", but what's
stored in text files are the two characters "\cM\cJ". That means that, if
you don't use binmode() on these systems, "\cM\cJ" sequences on disk will
be converted to "\n" on input, and any "\n" in your program will be con-
verted back to "\cM\cJ" on output. This is what you want for text files,
but it can be disastrous for binary files.
Another consequence of using binmode() (on some systems) is that special
end-of-file markers will be seen as part of the data stream. For systems
from the Microsoft family this means that if your binary data contains
"\cZ", the I/O subsystem will regard it as the end of the file, unless you
use binmode().
binmode() is not only important for readline() and print() operations, but
also when using read(), seek(), sysread(), syswrite() and tell() (see perl-
port for more details). See the $/ and "$\" variables in perlvar for how
to manually set your input and output line-termination sequences.
bless REF,CLASSNAME
bless REF
This function tells the thingy referenced by REF that it is now an object
in the CLASSNAME package. If CLASSNAME is omitted, the current package is
used. Because a "bless" is often the last thing in a constructor, it
returns the reference for convenience. Always use the two-argument version
if a derived class might inherit the function doing the blessing. See
perltoot and perlobj for more about the blessing (and blessings) of
objects.
Consider always blessing objects in CLASSNAMEs that are mixed case. Names-
paces with all lowercase names are considered reserved for Perl pragmata.
Builtin types have all uppercase names. To prevent confusion, you may wish
to avoid such package names as well. Make sure that CLASSNAME is a true
value.
See "Perl Modules" in perlmod.
caller EXPR
caller Returns the context of the current subroutine call. In scalar context,
returns the caller's package name if there is a caller, that is, if we're
in a subroutine or "eval" or "require", and the undefined value otherwise.
In list context, returns
($package, $filename, $line) = caller;
With EXPR, it returns some extra information that the debugger uses to
print a stack trace. The value of EXPR indicates how many call frames to
go back before the current one.
($package, $filename, $line, $subroutine, $hasargs,
$wantarray, $evaltext, $is_require, $hints, $bitmask) = caller($i);
Here $subroutine may be "(eval)" if the frame is not a subroutine call, but
an "eval". In such a case additional elements $evaltext and $is_require
are set: $is_require is true if the frame is created by a "require" or
"use" statement, $evaltext contains the text of the "eval EXPR" statement.
In particular, for an "eval BLOCK" statement, $filename is "(eval)", but
$evaltext is undefined. (Note also that each "use" statement creates a
"require" frame inside an "eval EXPR" frame.) $subroutine may also be
"(unknown)" if this particular subroutine happens to have been deleted from
the symbol table. $hasargs is true if a new instance of @_ was set up for
the frame. $hints and $bitmask contain pragmatic hints that the caller was
compiled with. The $hints and $bitmask values are subject to change
between versions of Perl, and are not meant for external use.
Furthermore, when called from within the DB package, caller returns more
detailed information: it sets the list variable @DB::args to be the argu-
ments with which the subroutine was invoked.
Be aware that the optimizer might have optimized call frames away before
"caller" had a chance to get the information. That means that caller(N)
might not return information about the call frame you expect it do, for "N
> 1". In particular, @DB::args might have information from the previous
time "caller" was called.
chdir EXPR
chdir FILEHANDLE
chdir DIRHANDLE
chdir Changes the working directory to EXPR, if possible. If EXPR is omitted,
changes to the directory specified by $ENV{HOME}, if set; if not, changes
to the directory specified by $ENV{LOGDIR}. (Under VMS, the variable
$ENV{SYS$LOGIN} is also checked, and used if it is set.) If neither is set,
"chdir" does nothing. It returns true upon success, false otherwise. See
the example under "die".
On systems that support fchdir, you might pass a file handle or directory
handle as argument. On systems that don't support fchdir, passing handles
produces a fatal error at run time.
chmod LIST
Changes the permissions of a list of files. The first element of the list
must be the numerical mode, which should probably be an octal number, and
which definitely should not be a string of octal digits: 0644 is okay,
'0644' is not. Returns the number of files successfully changed. See also
"oct", if all you have is a string.
$cnt = chmod 0755, 'foo', 'bar';
chmod 0755, @executables;
$mode = '0644'; chmod $mode, 'foo'; # !!! sets mode to
# --w----r-T
$mode = '0644'; chmod oct($mode), 'foo'; # this is better
$mode = 0644; chmod $mode, 'foo'; # this is best
On systems that support fchmod, you might pass file handles among the
files. On systems that don't support fchmod, passing file handles produces
a fatal error at run time.
open(my $fh, "<", "foo");
my $perm = (stat $fh)[2] & 07777;
chmod($perm | 0600, $fh);
You can also import the symbolic "S_I*" constants from the Fcntl module:
use Fcntl ':mode';
chmod S_IRWXU|S_IRGRP|S_IXGRP|S_IROTH|S_IXOTH, @executables;
# This is identical to the chmod 0755 of the above example.
chomp VARIABLE
chomp( LIST )
chomp This safer version of "chop" removes any trailing string that corresponds
to the current value of $/ (also known as $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR in the
"English" module). It returns the total number of characters removed from
all its arguments. It's often used to remove the newline from the end of
an input record when you're worried that the final record may be missing
its newline. When in paragraph mode ("$/ = """), it removes all trailing
newlines from the string. When in slurp mode ("$/ = undef") or fixed-
length record mode ($/ is a reference to an integer or the like, see perl-
var) chomp() won't remove anything. If VARIABLE is omitted, it chomps $_.
Example:
while (<>) {
chomp; # avoid \n on last field
@array = split(/:/);
# ...
}
If VARIABLE is a hash, it chomps the hash's values, but not its keys.
You can actually chomp anything that's an lvalue, including an assignment:
chomp($cwd = 'pwd');
chomp($answer = <STDIN>);
If you chomp a list, each element is chomped, and the total number of char-
acters removed is returned.
If the "encoding" pragma is in scope then the lengths returned are calcu-
lated from the length of $/ in Unicode characters, which is not always the
same as the length of $/ in the native encoding.
Note that parentheses are necessary when you're chomping anything that is
not a simple variable. This is because "chomp $cwd = 'pwd';" is inter-
preted as "(chomp $cwd) = 'pwd';", rather than as "chomp( $cwd = 'pwd' )"
which you might expect. Similarly, "chomp $a, $b" is interpreted as
"chomp($a), $b" rather than as "chomp($a, $b)".
chop VARIABLE
chop( LIST )
chop Chops off the last character of a string and returns the character chopped.
It is much more efficient than "s/.$//s" because it neither scans nor
copies the string. If VARIABLE is omitted, chops $_. If VARIABLE is a
hash, it chops the hash's values, but not its keys.
You can actually chop anything that's an lvalue, including an assignment.
If you chop a list, each element is chopped. Only the value of the last
"chop" is returned.
Note that "chop" returns the last character. To return all but the last
character, use "substr($string, 0, -1)".
See also "chomp".
chown LIST
Changes the owner (and group) of a list of files. The first two elements
of the list must be the numeric uid and gid, in that order. A value of -1
in either position is interpreted by most systems to leave that value
unchanged. Returns the number of files successfully changed.
$cnt = chown $uid, $gid, 'foo', 'bar';
chown $uid, $gid, @filenames;
On systems that support fchown, you might pass file handles among the
files. On systems that don't support fchown, passing file handles produces
a fatal error at run time.
Here's an example that looks up nonnumeric uids in the passwd file:
print "User: ";
chomp($user = <STDIN>);
print "Files: ";
chomp($pattern = <STDIN>);
($login,$pass,$uid,$gid) = getpwnam($user)
or die "$user not in passwd file";
@ary = glob($pattern); # expand filenames
chown $uid, $gid, @ary;
On most systems, you are not allowed to change the ownership of the file
unless you're the superuser, although you should be able to change the
group to any of your secondary groups. On insecure systems, these restric-
tions may be relaxed, but this is not a portable assumption. On POSIX sys-
tems, you can detect this condition this way:
use POSIX qw(sysconf _PC_CHOWN_RESTRICTED);
$can_chown_giveaway = not sysconf(_PC_CHOWN_RESTRICTED);
chr NUMBER
chr Returns the character represented by that NUMBER in the character set. For
example, "chr(65)" is "A" in either ASCII or Unicode, and chr(0x263a) is a
Unicode smiley face. Note that characters from 128 to 255 (inclusive) are
by default not encoded in UTF-8 Unicode for backward compatibility reasons
(but see encoding).
If NUMBER is omitted, uses $_.
For the reverse, use "ord".
Note that under the "bytes" pragma the NUMBER is masked to the low eight
bits.
See perlunicode and encoding for more about Unicode.
chroot FILENAME
chroot This function works like the system call by the same name: it makes the
named directory the new root directory for all further pathnames that begin
with a "/" by your process and all its children. (It doesn't change your
current working directory, which is unaffected.) For security reasons,
this call is restricted to the superuser. If FILENAME is omitted, does a
"chroot" to $_.
close FILEHANDLE
close Closes the file or pipe associated with the file handle, returning true
only if IO buffers are successfully flushed and closes the system file
descriptor. Closes the currently selected filehandle if the argument is
omitted.
You don't have to close FILEHANDLE if you are immediately going to do
another "open" on it, because "open" will close it for you. (See "open".)
However, an explicit "close" on an input file resets the line counter ($.),
while the implicit close done by "open" does not.
If the file handle came from a piped open, "close" will additionally return
false if one of the other system calls involved fails, or if the program
exits with non-zero status. (If the only problem was that the program
exited non-zero, $! will be set to 0.) Closing a pipe also waits for the
process executing on the pipe to complete, in case you want to look at the
output of the pipe afterwards, and implicitly puts the exit status value of
that command into $?.
Prematurely closing the read end of a pipe (i.e. before the process writing
to it at the other end has closed it) will result in a SIGPIPE being deliv-
ered to the writer. If the other end can't handle that, be sure to read
all the data before closing the pipe.
Example:
open(OUTPUT, '|sort >foo') # pipe to sort
or die "Can't start sort: $!";
#... # print stuff to output
close OUTPUT # wait for sort to finish
or warn $! ? "Error closing sort pipe: $!"
: "Exit status $? from sort";
open(INPUT, 'foo') # get sort's results
or die "Can't open 'foo' for input: $!";
FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value can be used as an indirect
filehandle, usually the real filehandle name.
closedir DIRHANDLE
Closes a directory opened by "opendir" and returns the success of that sys-
tem call.
connect SOCKET,NAME
Attempts to connect to a remote socket, just as the connect system call
does. Returns true if it succeeded, false otherwise. NAME should be a
packed address of the appropriate type for the socket. See the examples in
"Sockets: Client/Server Communication" in perlipc.
continue BLOCK
"continue" is actually a flow control statement rather than a function. If
there is a "continue" BLOCK attached to a BLOCK (typically in a "while" or
"foreach"), it is always executed just before the conditional is about to
be evaluated again, just like the third part of a "for" loop in C. Thus it
can be used to increment a loop variable, even when the loop has been con-
tinued via the "next" statement (which is similar to the C "continue"
statement).
"last", "next", or "redo" may appear within a "continue" block. "last" and
"redo" will behave as if they had been executed within the main block. So
will "next", but since it will execute a "continue" block, it may be more
entertaining.
while (EXPR) {
### redo always comes here
do_something;
} continue {
### next always comes here
do_something_else;
# then back the top to re-check EXPR
}
### last always comes here
Omitting the "continue" section is semantically equivalent to using an
empty one, logically enough. In that case, "next" goes directly back to
check the condition at the top of the loop.
cos EXPR
cos Returns the cosine of EXPR (expressed in radians). If EXPR is omitted,
takes cosine of $_.
For the inverse cosine operation, you may use the "Math::Trig::acos()"
function, or use this relation:
sub acos { atan2( sqrt(1 - $_[0] * $_[0]), $_[0] ) }
crypt PLAINTEXT,SALT
Creates a digest string exactly like the crypt(3) function in the C library
(assuming that you actually have a version there that has not been extir-
pated as a potential munitions).
crypt() is a one-way hash function. The PLAINTEXT and SALT is turned into
a short string, called a digest, which is returned. The same PLAINTEXT and
SALT will always return the same string, but there is no (known) way to get
the original PLAINTEXT from the hash. Small changes in the PLAINTEXT or
SALT will result in large changes in the digest.
There is no decrypt function. This function isn't all that useful for
cryptography (for that, look for Crypt modules on your nearby CPAN mirror)
and the name "crypt" is a bit of a misnomer. Instead it is primarily used
to check if two pieces of text are the same without having to transmit or
store the text itself. An example is checking if a correct password is
given. The digest of the password is stored, not the password itself. The
user types in a password that is crypt()'d with the same salt as the stored
digest. If the two digests match the password is correct.
When verifying an existing digest string you should use the digest as the
salt (like "crypt($plain, $digest) eq $digest"). The SALT used to create
the digest is visible as part of the digest. This ensures crypt() will
hash the new string with the same salt as the digest. This allows your
code to work with the standard crypt and with more exotic implementations.
In other words, do not assume anything about the returned string itself, or
how many bytes in the digest matter.
Traditionally the result is a string of 13 bytes: two first bytes of the
salt, followed by 11 bytes from the set "[./0-9A-Za-z]", and only the first
eight bytes of the digest string mattered, but alternative hashing schemes
(like MD5), higher level security schemes (like C2), and implementations on
non-UNIX platforms may produce different strings.
When choosing a new salt create a random two character string whose charac-
ters come from the set "[./0-9A-Za-z]" (like "join '', ('.', '/', 0..9,
'A'..'Z', 'a'..'z')[rand 64, rand 64]"). This set of characters is just a
recommendation; the characters allowed in the salt depend solely on your
system's crypt library, and Perl can't restrict what salts "crypt()"
accepts.
Here's an example that makes sure that whoever runs this program knows
their password:
$pwd = (getpwuid($<))[1];
system "stty -echo";
print "Password: ";
chomp($word = <STDIN>);
print "\n";
system "stty echo";
if (crypt($word, $pwd) ne $pwd) {
die "Sorry...\n";
} else {
print "ok\n";
}
Of course, typing in your own password to whoever asks you for it is
unwise.
The crypt function is unsuitable for hashing large quantities of data, not
least of all because you can't get the information back. Look at the
Digest module for more robust algorithms.
If using crypt() on a Unicode string (which potentially has characters with
codepoints above 255), Perl tries to make sense of the situation by trying
to downgrade (a copy of the string) the string back to an eight-bit byte
string before calling crypt() (on that copy). If that works, good. If
not, crypt() dies with "Wide character in crypt".
dbmclose HASH
[This function has been largely superseded by the "untie" function.]
Breaks the binding between a DBM file and a hash.
dbmopen HASH,DBNAME,MASK
[This function has been largely superseded by the "tie" function.]
This binds a dbm(3), ndbm(3), sdbm(3), gdbm(3), or Berkeley DB file to a
hash. HASH is the name of the hash. (Unlike normal "open", the first
argument is not a filehandle, even though it looks like one). DBNAME is
the name of the database (without the .dir or .pag extension if any). If
the database does not exist, it is created with protection specified by
MASK (as modified by the "umask"). If your system supports only the older
DBM functions, you may perform only one "dbmopen" in your program. In
older versions of Perl, if your system had neither DBM nor ndbm, calling
"dbmopen" produced a fatal error; it now falls back to sdbm(3).
If you don't have write access to the DBM file, you can only read hash
variables, not set them. If you want to test whether you can write, either
use file tests or try setting a dummy hash entry inside an "eval", which
will trap the error.
Note that functions such as "keys" and "values" may return huge lists when
used on large DBM files. You may prefer to use the "each" function to
iterate over large DBM files. Example:
# print out history file offsets
dbmopen(%HIST,'/usr/lib/news/history',0666);
while (($key,$val) = each %HIST) {
print $key, ' = ', unpack('L',$val), "\n";
}
dbmclose(%HIST);
See also AnyDBM_File for a more general description of the pros and cons of
the various dbm approaches, as well as DB_File for a particularly rich
implementation.
You can control which DBM library you use by loading that library before
you call dbmopen():
use DB_File;
dbmopen(%NS_Hist, "$ENV{HOME}/.netscape/history.db")
or die "Can't open netscape history file: $!";
defined EXPR
defined Returns a Boolean value telling whether EXPR has a value other than the
undefined value "undef". If EXPR is not present, $_ will be checked.
Many operations return "undef" to indicate failure, end of file, system
error, uninitialized variable, and other exceptional conditions. This
function allows you to distinguish "undef" from other values. (A simple
Boolean test will not distinguish among "undef", zero, the empty string,
and "0", which are all equally false.) Note that since "undef" is a valid
scalar, its presence doesn't necessarily indicate an exceptional condition:
"pop" returns "undef" when its argument is an empty array, or when the ele-
ment to return happens to be "undef".
You may also use "defined(&func)" to check whether subroutine &func has
ever been defined. The return value is unaffected by any forward declara-
tions of &func. Note that a subroutine which is not defined may still be
callable: its package may have an "AUTOLOAD" method that makes it spring
into existence the first time that it is called -- see perlsub.
Use of "defined" on aggregates (hashes and arrays) is deprecated. It used
to report whether memory for that aggregate has ever been allocated. This
behavior may disappear in future versions of Perl. You should instead use
a simple test for size:
if (@an_array) { print "has array elements\n" }
if (%a_hash) { print "has hash members\n" }
When used on a hash element, it tells you whether the value is defined, not
whether the key exists in the hash. Use "exists" for the latter purpose.
Examples:
print if defined $switch{'D'};
print "$val\n" while defined($val = pop(@ary));
die "Can't readlink $sym: $!"
unless defined($value = readlink $sym);
sub foo { defined &$bar ? &$bar(@_) : die "No bar"; }
$debugging = 0 unless defined $debugging;
Note: Many folks tend to overuse "defined", and then are surprised to dis-
cover that the number 0 and "" (the zero-length string) are, in fact,
defined values. For example, if you say
"ab" =~ /a(.*)b/;
The pattern match succeeds, and $1 is defined, despite the fact that it
matched "nothing". It didn't really fail to match anything. Rather, it
matched something that happened to be zero characters long. This is all
very above-board and honest. When a function returns an undefined value,
it's an admission that it couldn't give you an honest answer. So you
should use "defined" only when you're questioning the integrity of what
you're trying to do. At other times, a simple comparison to 0 or "" is
what you want.
See also "undef", "exists", "ref".
delete EXPR
Given an expression that specifies a hash element, array element, hash
slice, or array slice, deletes the specified element(s) from the hash or
array. In the case of an array, if the array elements happen to be at the
end, the size of the array will shrink to the highest element that tests
true for exists() (or 0 if no such element exists).
Returns a list with the same number of elements as the number of elements
for which deletion was attempted. Each element of that list consists of
either the value of the element deleted, or the undefined value. In scalar
context, this means that you get the value of the last element deleted (or
the undefined value if that element did not exist).
%hash = (foo => 11, bar => 22, baz => 33);
$scalar = delete $hash{foo}; # $scalar is 11
$scalar = delete @hash{qw(foo bar)}; # $scalar is 22
@array = delete @hash{qw(foo bar baz)}; # @array is (undef,undef,33)
Deleting from %ENV modifies the environment. Deleting from a hash tied to
a DBM file deletes the entry from the DBM file. Deleting from a "tie"d
hash or array may not necessarily return anything.
Deleting an array element effectively returns that position of the array to
its initial, uninitialized state. Subsequently testing for the same ele-
ment with exists() will return false. Also, deleting array elements in the
middle of an array will not shift the index of the elements after them
down. Use splice() for that. See "exists".
The following (inefficiently) deletes all the values of %HASH and @ARRAY:
foreach $key (keys %HASH) {
delete $HASH{$key};
}
foreach $index (0 .. $#ARRAY) {
delete $ARRAY[$index];
}
And so do these:
delete @HASH{keys %HASH};
delete @ARRAY[0 .. $#ARRAY];
But both of these are slower than just assigning the empty list or undefin-
ing %HASH or @ARRAY:
%HASH = (); # completely empty %HASH
undef %HASH; # forget %HASH ever existed
@ARRAY = (); # completely empty @ARRAY
undef @ARRAY; # forget @ARRAY ever existed
Note that the EXPR can be arbitrarily complicated as long as the final
operation is a hash element, array element, hash slice, or array slice
lookup:
delete $ref->[$x][$y]{$key};
delete @{$ref->[$x][$y]}{$key1, $key2, @morekeys};
delete $ref->[$x][$y][$index];
delete @{$ref->[$x][$y]}[$index1, $index2, @moreindices];
die LIST
Outside an "eval", prints the value of LIST to "STDERR" and exits with the
current value of $! (errno). If $! is 0, exits with the value of "($? >>
8)" (backtick 'command' status). If "($? >> 8)" is 0, exits with 255.
Inside an "eval()," the error message is stuffed into $@ and the "eval" is
terminated with the undefined value. This makes "die" the way to raise an
exception.
Equivalent examples:
die "Can't cd to spool: $!\n" unless chdir '/usr/spool/news';
chdir '/usr/spool/news' or die "Can't cd to spool: $!\n"
If the last element of LIST does not end in a newline, the current script
line number and input line number (if any) are also printed, and a newline
is supplied. Note that the "input line number" (also known as "chunk") is
subject to whatever notion of "line" happens to be currently in effect, and
is also available as the special variable $.. See "$/" in perlvar and "$."
in perlvar.
Hint: sometimes appending ", stopped" to your message will cause it to make
better sense when the string "at foo line 123" is appended. Suppose you
are running script "canasta".
die "/etc/games is no good";
die "/etc/games is no good, stopped";
produce, respectively
/etc/games is no good at canasta line 123.
/etc/games is no good, stopped at canasta line 123.
See also exit(), warn(), and the Carp module.
If LIST is empty and $@ already contains a value (typically from a previous
eval) that value is reused after appending "\t...propagated". This is use-
ful for propagating exceptions:
eval { ... };
die unless $@ =~ /Expected exception/;
If LIST is empty and $@ contains an object reference that has a "PROPAGATE"
method, that method will be called with additional file and line number
parameters. The return value replaces the value in $@. i.e. as if "$@ =
eval { $@->PROPAGATE(__FILE__, __LINE__) };" were called.
If $@ is empty then the string "Died" is used.
die() can also be called with a reference argument. If this happens to be
trapped within an eval(), $@ contains the reference. This behavior permits
a more elaborate exception handling implementation using objects that main-
tain arbitrary state about the nature of the exception. Such a scheme is
sometimes preferable to matching particular string values of $@ using regu-
lar expressions. Here's an example:
use Scalar::Util 'blessed';
eval { ... ; die Some::Module::Exception->new( FOO => "bar" ) };
if ($@) {
if (blessed($@) && $@->isa("Some::Module::Exception")) {
# handle Some::Module::Exception
}
else {
# handle all other possible exceptions
}
}
Because perl will stringify uncaught exception messages before displaying
them, you may want to overload stringification operations on such custom
exception objects. See overload for details about that.
You can arrange for a callback to be run just before the "die" does its
deed, by setting the $SIG{__DIE__} hook. The associated handler will be
called with the error text and can change the error message, if it sees
fit, by calling "die" again. See "$SIG{expr}" in perlvar for details on
setting %SIG entries, and "eval BLOCK" for some examples. Although this
feature was to be run only right before your program was to exit, this is
not currently the case--the $SIG{__DIE__} hook is currently called even
inside eval()ed blocks/strings! If one wants the hook to do nothing in
such situations, put
die @_ if $^S;
as the first line of the handler (see "$^S" in perlvar). Because this pro-
motes strange action at a distance, this counterintuitive behavior may be
fixed in a future release.
do BLOCK
Not really a function. Returns the value of the last command in the
sequence of commands indicated by BLOCK. When modified by the "while" or
"until" loop modifier, executes the BLOCK once before testing the loop
condition. (On other statements the loop modifiers test the conditional
first.)
"do BLOCK" does not count as a loop, so the loop control statements "next",
"last", or "redo" cannot be used to leave or restart the block. See perl-
syn for alternative strategies.
do SUBROUTINE(LIST)
This form of subroutine call is deprecated. See perlsub.
do EXPR Uses the value of EXPR as a filename and executes the contents of the file
as a Perl script.
do 'stat.pl';
is just like
eval 'cat stat.pl';
except that it's more efficient and concise, keeps track of the current
filename for error messages, searches the @INC directories, and updates
%INC if the file is found. See "Predefined Names" in perlvar for these
variables. It also differs in that code evaluated with "do FILENAME" can-
not see lexicals in the enclosing scope; "eval STRING" does. It's the
same, however, in that it does reparse the file every time you call it, so
you probably don't want to do this inside a loop.
If "do" cannot read the file, it returns undef and sets $! to the error.
If "do" can read the file but cannot compile it, it returns undef and sets
an error message in $@. If the file is successfully compiled, "do"
returns the value of the last expression evaluated.
Note that inclusion of library modules is better done with the "use" and
"require" operators, which also do automatic error checking and raise an
exception if there's a problem.
You might like to use "do" to read in a program configuration file. Manual
error checking can be done this way:
# read in config files: system first, then user
for $file ("/share/prog/defaults.rc",
"$ENV{HOME}/.someprogrc")
{
unless ($return = do $file) {
warn "couldn't parse $file: $@" if $@;
warn "couldn't do $file: $!" unless defined $return;
warn "couldn't run $file" unless $return;
}
}
dump LABEL
dump This function causes an immediate core dump. See also the -u command-line
switch in perlrun, which does the same thing. Primarily this is so that
you can use the undump program (not supplied) to turn your core dump into
an executable binary after having initialized all your variables at the
beginning of the program. When the new binary is executed it will begin by
executing a "goto LABEL" (with all the restrictions that "goto" suffers).
Think of it as a goto with an intervening core dump and reincarnation. If
"LABEL" is omitted, restarts the program from the top.
WARNING: Any files opened at the time of the dump will not be open any more
when the program is reincarnated, with possible resulting confusion on the
part of Perl.
This function is now largely obsolete, partly because it's very hard to
convert a core file into an executable, and because the real compiler back-
ends for generating portable bytecode and compilable C code have superseded
it. That's why you should now invoke it as "CORE::dump()", if you don't
want to be warned against a possible typo.
If you're looking to use dump to speed up your program, consider generating
bytecode or native C code as described in perlcc. If you're just trying to
accelerate a CGI script, consider using the "mod_perl" extension to Apache,
or the CPAN module, CGI::Fast. You might also consider autoloading or
selfloading, which at least make your program appear to run faster.
each HASH
When called in list context, returns a 2-element list consisting of the key
and value for the next element of a hash, so that you can iterate over it.
When called in scalar context, returns only the key for the next element in
the hash.
Entries are returned in an apparently random order. The actual random
order is subject to change in future versions of perl, but it is guaranteed
to be in the same order as either the "keys" or "values" function would
produce on the same (unmodified) hash. Since Perl 5.8.1 the ordering is
different even between different runs of Perl for security reasons (see
"Algorithmic Complexity Attacks" in perlsec).
When the hash is entirely read, a null array is returned in list context
(which when assigned produces a false (0) value), and "undef" in scalar
context. The next call to "each" after that will start iterating again.
There is a single iterator for each hash, shared by all "each", "keys", and
"values" function calls in the program; it can be reset by reading all the
elements from the hash, or by evaluating "keys HASH" or "values HASH". If
you add or delete elements of a hash while you're iterating over it, you
may get entries skipped or duplicated, so don't. Exception: It is always
safe to delete the item most recently returned by "each()", which means
that the following code will work:
while (($key, $value) = each %hash) {
print $key, "\n";
delete $hash{$key}; # This is safe
}
The following prints out your environment like the printenv(1) program,
only in a different order:
while (($key,$value) = each %ENV) {
print "$key=$value\n";
}
See also "keys", "values" and "sort".
eof FILEHANDLE
eof ()
eof Returns 1 if the next read on FILEHANDLE will return end of file, or if
FILEHANDLE is not open. FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives
the real filehandle. (Note that this function actually reads a character
and then "ungetc"s it, so isn't very useful in an interactive context.) Do
not read from a terminal file (or call "eof(FILEHANDLE)" on it) after end-
of-file is reached. File types such as terminals may lose the end-of-file
condition if you do.
An "eof" without an argument uses the last file read. Using "eof()" with
empty parentheses is very different. It refers to the pseudo file formed
from the files listed on the command line and accessed via the "<>" opera-
tor. Since "<>" isn't explicitly opened, as a normal filehandle is, an
"eof()" before "<>" has been used will cause @ARGV to be examined to deter-
mine if input is available. Similarly, an "eof()" after "<>" has returned
end-of-file will assume you are processing another @ARGV list, and if you
haven't set @ARGV, will read input from "STDIN"; see "I/O Operators" in
perlop.
In a "while (<>)" loop, "eof" or "eof(ARGV)" can be used to detect the end
of each file, "eof()" will only detect the end of the last file. Examples:
# reset line numbering on each input file
while (<>) {
next if /^\s*#/; # skip comments
print "$.\t$_";
} continue {
close ARGV if eof; # Not eof()!
}
# insert dashes just before last line of last file
while (<>) {
if (eof()) { # check for end of last file
print "--------------\n";
}
print;
last if eof(); # needed if we're reading from a terminal
}
Practical hint: you almost never need to use "eof" in Perl, because the
input operators typically return "undef" when they run out of data, or if
there was an error.
eval EXPR
eval BLOCK
eval In the first form, the return value of EXPR is parsed and executed as if it
were a little Perl program. The value of the expression (which is itself
determined within scalar context) is first parsed, and if there weren't any
errors, executed in the lexical context of the current Perl program, so
that any variable settings or subroutine and format definitions remain
afterwards. Note that the value is parsed every time the "eval" executes.
If EXPR is omitted, evaluates $_. This form is typically used to delay
parsing and subsequent execution of the text of EXPR until run time.
In the second form, the code within the BLOCK is parsed only once--at the
same time the code surrounding the "eval" itself was parsed--and executed
within the context of the current Perl program. This form is typically
used to trap exceptions more efficiently than the first (see below), while
also providing the benefit of checking the code within BLOCK at compile
time.
The final semicolon, if any, may be omitted from the value of EXPR or
within the BLOCK.
In both forms, the value returned is the value of the last expression eval-
uated inside the mini-program; a return statement may be also used, just as
with subroutines. The expression providing the return value is evaluated
in void, scalar, or list context, depending on the context of the "eval"
itself. See "wantarray" for more on how the evaluation context can be
determined.
If there is a syntax error or runtime error, or a "die" statement is exe-
cuted, an undefined value is returned by "eval", and $@ is set to the error
message. If there was no error, $@ is guaranteed to be a null string.
Beware that using "eval" neither silences perl from printing warnings to
STDERR, nor does it stuff the text of warning messages into $@. To do
either of those, you have to use the $SIG{__WARN__} facility, or turn off
warnings inside the BLOCK or EXPR using "no warnings 'all'". See "warn",
perlvar, warnings and perllexwarn.
Note that, because "eval" traps otherwise-fatal errors, it is useful for
determining whether a particular feature (such as "socket" or "symlink") is
implemented. It is also Perl's exception trapping mechanism, where the die
operator is used to raise exceptions.
If the code to be executed doesn't vary, you may use the eval-BLOCK form to
trap run-time errors without incurring the penalty of recompiling each
time. The error, if any, is still returned in $@. Examples:
# make divide-by-zero nonfatal
eval { $answer = $a / $b; }; warn $@ if $@;
# same thing, but less efficient
eval '$answer = $a / $b'; warn $@ if $@;
# a compile-time error
eval { $answer = }; # WRONG
# a run-time error
eval '$answer ='; # sets $@
Using the "eval{}" form as an exception trap in libraries does have some
issues. Due to the current arguably broken state of "__DIE__" hooks, you
may wish not to trigger any "__DIE__" hooks that user code may have
installed. You can use the "local $SIG{__DIE__}" construct for this pur-
pose, as shown in this example:
# a very private exception trap for divide-by-zero
eval { local $SIG{'__DIE__'}; $answer = $a / $b; };
warn $@ if $@;
This is especially significant, given that "__DIE__" hooks can call "die"
again, which has the effect of changing their error messages:
# __DIE__ hooks may modify error messages
{
local $SIG{'__DIE__'} =
sub { (my $x = $_[0]) =~ s/foo/bar/g; die $x };
eval { die "foo lives here" };
print $@ if $@; # prints "bar lives here"
}
Because this promotes action at a distance, this counterintuitive behavior
may be fixed in a future release.
With an "eval", you should be especially careful to remember what's being
looked at when:
eval $x; # CASE 1
eval "$x"; # CASE 2
eval '$x'; # CASE 3
eval { $x }; # CASE 4
eval "\$$x++"; # CASE 5
$$x++; # CASE 6
Cases 1 and 2 above behave identically: they run the code contained in the
variable $x. (Although case 2 has misleading double quotes making the
reader wonder what else might be happening (nothing is).) Cases 3 and 4
likewise behave in the same way: they run the code '$x', which does nothing
but return the value of $x. (Case 4 is preferred for purely visual rea-
sons, but it also has the advantage of compiling at compile-time instead of
at run-time.) Case 5 is a place where normally you would like to use dou-
ble quotes, except that in this particular situation, you can just use sym-
bolic references instead, as in case 6.
"eval BLOCK" does not count as a loop, so the loop control statements
"next", "last", or "redo" cannot be used to leave or restart the block.
Note that as a very special case, an "eval ''" executed within the "DB"
package doesn't see the usual surrounding lexical scope, but rather the
scope of the first non-DB piece of code that called it. You don't normally
need to worry about this unless you are writing a Perl debugger.
exec LIST
exec PROGRAM LIST
The "exec" function executes a system command and never returns-- use "sys-
tem" instead of "exec" if you want it to return. It fails and returns
false only if the command does not exist and it is executed directly
instead of via your system's command shell (see below).
Since it's a common mistake to use "exec" instead of "system", Perl warns
you if there is a following statement which isn't "die", "warn", or "exit"
(if "-w" is set - but you always do that). If you really want to follow
an "exec" with some other statement, you can use one of these styles to
avoid the warning:
exec ('foo') or print STDERR "couldn't exec foo: $!";
{ exec ('foo') }; print STDERR "couldn't exec foo: $!";
If there is more than one argument in LIST, or if LIST is an array with
more than one value, calls execvp(3) with the arguments in LIST. If there
is only one scalar argument or an array with one element in it, the argu-
ment is checked for shell metacharacters, and if there are any, the entire
argument is passed to the system's command shell for parsing (this is
"/bin/sh -c" on Unix platforms, but varies on other platforms). If there
are no shell metacharacters in the argument, it is split into words and
passed directly to "execvp", which is more efficient. Examples:
exec '/bin/echo', 'Your arguments are: ', @ARGV;
exec "sort $outfile | uniq";
If you don't really want to execute the first argument, but want to lie to
the program you are executing about its own name, you can specify the pro-
gram you actually want to run as an "indirect object" (without a comma) in
front of the LIST. (This always forces interpretation of the LIST as a
multivalued list, even if there is only a single scalar in the list.)
Example:
$shell = '/bin/csh';
exec $shell '-sh'; # pretend it's a login shell
or, more directly,
exec {'/bin/csh'} '-sh'; # pretend it's a login shell
When the arguments get executed via the system shell, results will be sub-
ject to its quirks and capabilities. See "'STRING'" in perlop for details.
Using an indirect object with "exec" or "system" is also more secure. This
usage (which also works fine with system()) forces interpretation of the
arguments as a multivalued list, even if the list had just one argument.
That way you're safe from the shell expanding wildcards or splitting up
words with whitespace in them.
@args = ( "echo surprise" );
exec @args; # subject to shell escapes
# if @args == 1
exec { $args[0] } @args; # safe even with one-arg list
The first version, the one without the indirect object, ran the echo pro-
gram, passing it "surprise" an argument. The second version didn't--it
tried to run a program literally called "echo surprise", didn't find it,
and set $? to a non-zero value indicating failure.
Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for out-
put before the exec, but this may not be supported on some platforms (see
perlport). To be safe, you may need to set $| ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or
call the "autoflush()" method of "IO::Handle" on any open handles in order
to avoid lost output.
Note that "exec" will not call your "END" blocks, nor will it call any
"DESTROY" methods in your objects.
exists EXPR
Given an expression that specifies a hash element or array element, returns
true if the specified element in the hash or array has ever been initial-
ized, even if the corresponding value is undefined. The element is not
autovivified if it doesn't exist.
print "Exists\n" if exists $hash{$key};
print "Defined\n" if defined $hash{$key};
print "True\n" if $hash{$key};
print "Exists\n" if exists $array[$index];
print "Defined\n" if defined $array[$index];
print "True\n" if $array[$index];
A hash or array element can be true only if it's defined, and defined if it
exists, but the reverse doesn't necessarily hold true.
Given an expression that specifies the name of a subroutine, returns true
if the specified subroutine has ever been declared, even if it is unde-
fined. Mentioning a subroutine name for exists or defined does not count
as declaring it. Note that a subroutine which does not exist may still be
callable: its package may have an "AUTOLOAD" method that makes it spring
into existence the first time that it is called -- see perlsub.
print "Exists\n" if exists &subroutine;
print "Defined\n" if defined &subroutine;
Note that the EXPR can be arbitrarily complicated as long as the final
operation is a hash or array key lookup or subroutine name:
if (exists $ref->{A}->{B}->{$key}) { }
if (exists $hash{A}{B}{$key}) { }
if (exists $ref->{A}->{B}->[$ix]) { }
if (exists $hash{A}{B}[$ix]) { }
if (exists &{$ref->{A}{B}{$key}}) { }
Although the deepest nested array or hash will not spring into existence
just because its existence was tested, any intervening ones will. Thus
"$ref->{"A"}" and "$ref->{"A"}->{"B"}" will spring into existence due to
the existence test for the $key element above. This happens anywhere the
arrow operator is used, including even:
undef $ref;
if (exists $ref->{"Some key"}) { }
print $ref; # prints HASH(0x80d3d5c)
This surprising autovivification in what does not at first--or even sec-
ond--glance appear to be an lvalue context may be fixed in a future
release.
See "Pseudo-hashes: Using an array as a hash" in perlref for specifics on
how exists() acts when used on a pseudo-hash.
Use of a subroutine call, rather than a subroutine name, as an argument to
exists() is an error.
exists ⊂ # OK
exists &sub(); # Error
exit EXPR
exit Evaluates EXPR and exits immediately with that value. Example:
$ans = <STDIN>;
exit 0 if $ans =~ /^[Xx]/;
See also "die". If EXPR is omitted, exits with 0 status. The only univer-
sally recognized values for EXPR are 0 for success and 1 for error; other
values are subject to interpretation depending on the environment in which
the Perl program is running. For example, exiting 69 (EX_UNAVAILABLE) from
a sendmail incoming-mail filter will cause the mailer to return the item
undelivered, but that's not true everywhere.
Don't use "exit" to abort a subroutine if there's any chance that someone
might want to trap whatever error happened. Use "die" instead, which can
be trapped by an "eval".
The exit() function does not always exit immediately. It calls any defined
"END" routines first, but these "END" routines may not themselves abort the
exit. Likewise any object destructors that need to be called are called
before the real exit. If this is a problem, you can call
"POSIX:_exit($status)" to avoid END and destructor processing. See perlmod
for details.
exp EXPR
exp Returns e (the natural logarithm base) to the power of EXPR. If EXPR is
omitted, gives "exp($_)".
fcntl FILEHANDLE,FUNCTION,SCALAR
Implements the fcntl(2) function. You'll probably have to say
use Fcntl;
first to get the correct constant definitions. Argument processing and
value return works just like "ioctl" below. For example:
use Fcntl;
fcntl($filehandle, F_GETFL, $packed_return_buffer)
or die "can't fcntl F_GETFL: $!";
You don't have to check for "defined" on the return from "fcntl". Like
"ioctl", it maps a 0 return from the system call into "0 but true" in Perl.
This string is true in boolean context and 0 in numeric context. It is
also exempt from the normal -w warnings on improper numeric conversions.
Note that "fcntl" will produce a fatal error if used on a machine that
doesn't implement fcntl(2). See the Fcntl module or your fcntl(2) manpage
to learn what functions are available on your system.
Here's an example of setting a filehandle named "REMOTE" to be non-blocking
at the system level. You'll have to negotiate $| on your own, though.
use Fcntl qw(F_GETFL F_SETFL O_NONBLOCK);
$flags = fcntl(REMOTE, F_GETFL, 0)
or die "Can't get flags for the socket: $!\n";
$flags = fcntl(REMOTE, F_SETFL, $flags | O_NONBLOCK)
or die "Can't set flags for the socket: $!\n";
fileno FILEHANDLE
Returns the file descriptor for a filehandle, or undefined if the filehan-
dle is not open. This is mainly useful for constructing bitmaps for
"select" and low-level POSIX tty-handling operations. If FILEHANDLE is an
expression, the value is taken as an indirect filehandle, generally its
name.
You can use this to find out whether two handles refer to the same underly-
ing descriptor:
if (fileno(THIS) == fileno(THAT)) {
print "THIS and THAT are dups\n";
}
(Filehandles connected to memory objects via new features of "open" may
return undefined even though they are open.)
flock FILEHANDLE,OPERATION
Calls flock(2), or an emulation of it, on FILEHANDLE. Returns true for
success, false on failure. Produces a fatal error if used on a machine
that doesn't implement flock(2), fcntl(2) locking, or lockf(3). "flock" is
Perl's portable file locking interface, although it locks only entire
files, not records.
Two potentially non-obvious but traditional "flock" semantics are that it
waits indefinitely until the lock is granted, and that its locks merely
advisory. Such discretionary locks are more flexible, but offer fewer
guarantees. This means that programs that do not also use "flock" may mod-
ify files locked with "flock". See perlport, your port's specific documen-
tation, or your system-specific local manpages for details. It's best to
assume traditional behavior if you're writing portable programs. (But if
you're not, you should as always feel perfectly free to write for your own
system's idiosyncrasies (sometimes called "features"). Slavish adherence
to portability concerns shouldn't get in the way of your getting your job
done.)
OPERATION is one of LOCK_SH, LOCK_EX, or LOCK_UN, possibly combined with
LOCK_NB. These constants are traditionally valued 1, 2, 8 and 4, but you
can use the symbolic names if you import them from the Fcntl module, either
individually, or as a group using the ':flock' tag. LOCK_SH requests a
shared lock, LOCK_EX requests an exclusive lock, and LOCK_UN releases a
previously requested lock. If LOCK_NB is bitwise-or'ed with LOCK_SH or
LOCK_EX then "flock" will return immediately rather than blocking waiting
for the lock (check the return status to see if you got it).
To avoid the possibility of miscoordination, Perl now flushes FILEHANDLE
before locking or unlocking it.
Note that the emulation built with lockf(3) doesn't provide shared locks,
and it requires that FILEHANDLE be open with write intent. These are the
semantics that lockf(3) implements. Most if not all systems implement
lockf(3) in terms of fcntl(2) locking, though, so the differing semantics
shouldn't bite too many people.
Note that the fcntl(2) emulation of flock(3) requires that FILEHANDLE be
open with read intent to use LOCK_SH and requires that it be open with
write intent to use LOCK_EX.
Note also that some versions of "flock" cannot lock things over the net-
work; you would need to use the more system-specific "fcntl" for that. If
you like you can force Perl to ignore your system's flock(2) function, and
so provide its own fcntl(2)-based emulation, by passing the switch
"-Ud_flock" to the Configure program when you configure perl.
Here's a mailbox appender for BSD systems.
use Fcntl ':flock'; # import LOCK_* constants
sub lock {
flock(MBOX,LOCK_EX);
# and, in case someone appended
# while we were waiting...
seek(MBOX, 0, 2);
}
sub unlock {
flock(MBOX,LOCK_UN);
}
open(MBOX, ">>/usr/spool/mail/$ENV{'USER'}")
or die "Can't open mailbox: $!";
lock();
print MBOX $msg,"\n\n";
unlock();
On systems that support a real flock(), locks are inherited across fork()
calls, whereas those that must resort to the more capricious fcntl() func-
tion lose the locks, making it harder to write servers.
See also DB_File for other flock() examples.
fork Does a fork(2) system call to create a new process running the same program
at the same point. It returns the child pid to the parent process, 0 to
the child process, or "undef" if the fork is unsuccessful. File descrip-
tors (and sometimes locks on those descriptors) are shared, while every-
thing else is copied. On most systems supporting fork(), great care has
gone into making it extremely efficient (for example, using copy-on-write
technology on data pages), making it the dominant paradigm for multitasking
over the last few decades.
Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for out-
put before forking the child process, but this may not be supported on some
platforms (see perlport). To be safe, you may need to set $| ($AUTOFLUSH
in English) or call the "autoflush()" method of "IO::Handle" on any open
handles in order to avoid duplicate output.
If you "fork" without ever waiting on your children, you will accumulate
zombies. On some systems, you can avoid this by setting $SIG{CHLD} to
"IGNORE". See also perlipc for more examples of forking and reaping mori-
bund children.
Note that if your forked child inherits system file descriptors like STDIN
and STDOUT that are actually connected by a pipe or socket, even if you
exit, then the remote server (such as, say, a CGI script or a backgrounded
job launched from a remote shell) won't think you're done. You should
reopen those to /dev/null if it's any issue.
format Declare a picture format for use by the "write" function. For example:
format Something =
Test: @<<<<<<<< @||||| @>>>>>
$str, $%, '$' . int($num)
.
$str = "widget";
$num = $cost/$quantity;
$~ = 'Something';
write;
See perlform for many details and examples.
formline PICTURE,LIST
This is an internal function used by "format"s, though you may call it,
too. It formats (see perlform) a list of values according to the contents
of PICTURE, placing the output into the format output accumulator, $^A (or
$ACCUMULATOR in English). Eventually, when a "write" is done, the contents
of $^A are written to some filehandle. You could also read $^A and then
set $^A back to "". Note that a format typically does one "formline" per
line of form, but the "formline" function itself doesn't care how many new-
lines are embedded in the PICTURE. This means that the "~" and "~~" tokens
will treat the entire PICTURE as a single line. You may therefore need to
use multiple formlines to implement a single record format, just like the
format compiler.
Be careful if you put double quotes around the picture, because an "@"
character may be taken to mean the beginning of an array name. "formline"
always returns true. See perlform for other examples.
getc FILEHANDLE
getc Returns the next character from the input file attached to FILEHANDLE, or
the undefined value at end of file, or if there was an error (in the latter
case $! is set). If FILEHANDLE is omitted, reads from STDIN. This is not
particularly efficient. However, it cannot be used by itself to fetch sin-
gle characters without waiting for the user to hit enter. For that, try
something more like:
if ($BSD_STYLE) {
system "stty cbreak </dev/tty >/dev/tty 2>&1";
}
else {
system "stty", '-icanon', 'eol', "\001";
}
$key = getc(STDIN);
if ($BSD_STYLE) {
system "stty -cbreak </dev/tty >/dev/tty 2>&1";
}
else {
system "stty", 'icanon', 'eol', '^@'; # ASCII null
}
print "\n";
Determination of whether $BSD_STYLE should be set is left as an exercise to
the reader.
The "POSIX::getattr" function can do this more portably on systems purport-
ing POSIX compliance. See also the "Term::ReadKey" module from your near-
est CPAN site; details on CPAN can be found on "CPAN" in perlmodlib.
getlogin
This implements the C library function of the same name, which on most sys-
tems returns the current login from /etc/utmp, if any. If null, use "getp-
wuid".
$login = getlogin || getpwuid($<) || "Kilroy";
Do not consider "getlogin" for authentication: it is not as secure as "get-
pwuid".
getpeername SOCKET
Returns the packed sockaddr address of other end of the SOCKET connection.
use Socket;
$hersockaddr = getpeername(SOCK);
($port, $iaddr) = sockaddr_in($hersockaddr);
$herhostname = gethostbyaddr($iaddr, AF_INET);
$herstraddr = inet_ntoa($iaddr);
getpgrp PID
Returns the current process group for the specified PID. Use a PID of 0 to
get the current process group for the current process. Will raise an
exception if used on a machine that doesn't implement getpgrp(2). If PID
is omitted, returns process group of current process. Note that the POSIX
version of "getpgrp" does not accept a PID argument, so only "PID==0" is
truly portable.
getppid Returns the process id of the parent process.
Note for Linux users: on Linux, the C functions "getpid()" and "getppid()"
return different values from different threads. In order to be portable,
this behavior is not reflected by the perl-level function "getppid()", that
returns a consistent value across threads. If you want to call the underly-
ing "getppid()", you may use the CPAN module "Linux::Pid".
getpriority WHICH,WHO
Returns the current priority for a process, a process group, or a user.
(See getpriority(2).) Will raise a fatal exception if used on a machine
that doesn't implement getpriority(2).
getpwnam NAME
getgrnam NAME
gethostbyname NAME
getnetbyname NAME
getprotobyname NAME
getpwuid UID
getgrgid GID
getservbyname NAME,PROTO
gethostbyaddr ADDR,ADDRTYPE
getnetbyaddr ADDR,ADDRTYPE
getprotobynumber NUMBER
getservbyport PORT,PROTO
getpwent
getgrent
gethostent
getnetent
getprotoent
getservent
setpwent
setgrent
sethostent STAYOPEN
setnetent STAYOPEN
setprotoent STAYOPEN
setservent STAYOPEN
endpwent
endgrent
endhostent
endnetent
endprotoent
endservent
These routines perform the same functions as their counterparts in the sys-
tem library. In list context, the return values from the various get
routines are as follows:
($name,$passwd,$uid,$gid,
$quota,$comment,$gcos,$dir,$shell,$expire) = getpw*
($name,$passwd,$gid,$members) = getgr*
($name,$aliases,$addrtype,$length,@addrs) = gethost*
($name,$aliases,$addrtype,$net) = getnet*
($name,$aliases,$proto) = getproto*
($name,$aliases,$port,$proto) = getserv*
(If the entry doesn't exist you get a null list.)
The exact meaning of the $gcos field varies but it usually contains the
real name of the user (as opposed to the login name) and other information
pertaining to the user. Beware, however, that in many system users are
able to change this information and therefore it cannot be trusted and
therefore the $gcos is tainted (see perlsec). The $passwd and $shell,
user's encrypted password and login shell, are also tainted, because of the
same reason.
In scalar context, you get the name, unless the function was a lookup by
name, in which case you get the other thing, whatever it is. (If the entry
doesn't exist you get the undefined value.) For example:
$uid = getpwnam($name);
$name = getpwuid($num);
$name = getpwent();
$gid = getgrnam($name);
$name = getgrgid($num);
$name = getgrent();
#etc.
In getpw*() the fields $quota, $comment, and $expire are special cases in
the sense that in many systems they are unsupported. If the $quota is
unsupported, it is an empty scalar. If it is supported, it usually encodes
the disk quota. If the $comment field is unsupported, it is an empty
scalar. If it is supported it usually encodes some administrative comment
about the user. In some systems the $quota field may be $change or $age,
fields that have to do with password aging. In some systems the $comment
field may be $class. The $expire field, if present, encodes the expiration
period of the account or the password. For the availability and the exact
meaning of these fields in your system, please consult your getpwnam(3)
documentation and your pwd.h file. You can also find out from within Perl
what your $quota and $comment fields mean and whether you have the $expire
field by using the "Config" module and the values "d_pwquota", "d_pwage",
"d_pwchange", "d_pwcomment", and "d_pwexpire". Shadow password files are
only supported if your vendor has implemented them in the intuitive fashion
that calling the regular C library routines gets the shadow versions if
you're running under privilege or if there exists the shadow(3) functions
as found in System V (this includes Solaris and Linux.) Those systems that
implement a proprietary shadow password facility are unlikely to be sup-
ported.
The $members value returned by getgr*() is a space separated list of the
login names of the members of the group.
For the gethost*() functions, if the "h_errno" variable is supported in C,
it will be returned to you via $? if the function call fails. The @addrs
value returned by a successful call is a list of the raw addresses returned
by the corresponding system library call. In the Internet domain, each
address is four bytes long and you can unpack it by saying something like:
($a,$b,$c,$d) = unpack('C4',$addr[0]);
The Socket library makes this slightly easier:
use Socket;
$iaddr = inet_aton("127.1"); # or whatever address
$name = gethostbyaddr($iaddr, AF_INET);
# or going the other way
$straddr = inet_ntoa($iaddr);
If you get tired of remembering which element of the return list contains
which return value, by-name interfaces are provided in standard modules:
"File::stat", "Net::hostent", "Net::netent", "Net::protoent", "Net::ser-
vent", "Time::gmtime", "Time::localtime", and "User::grent". These over-
ride the normal built-ins, supplying versions that return objects with the
appropriate names for each field. For example:
use File::stat;
use User::pwent;
$is_his = (stat($filename)->uid == pwent($whoever)->uid);
Even though it looks like they're the same method calls (uid), they aren't,
because a "File::stat" object is different from a "User::pwent" object.
getsockname SOCKET
Returns the packed sockaddr address of this end of the SOCKET connection,
in case you don't know the address because you have several different IPs
that the connection might have come in on.
use Socket;
$mysockaddr = getsockname(SOCK);
($port, $myaddr) = sockaddr_in($mysockaddr);
printf "Connect to %s [%s]\n",
scalar gethostbyaddr($myaddr, AF_INET),
inet_ntoa($myaddr);
getsockopt SOCKET,LEVEL,OPTNAME
Queries the option named OPTNAME associated with SOCKET at a given LEVEL.
Options may exist at multiple protocol levels depending on the socket type,
but at least the uppermost socket level SOL_SOCKET (defined in the "Socket"
module) will exist. To query options at another level the protocol number
of the appropriate protocol controlling the option should be supplied. For
example, to indicate that an option is to be interpreted by the TCP proto-
col, LEVEL should be set to the protocol number of TCP, which you can get
using getprotobyname.
The call returns a packed string representing the requested socket option,
or "undef" if there is an error (the error reason will be in $!). What
exactly is in the packed string depends in the LEVEL and OPTNAME, consult
your system documentation for details. A very common case however is that
the option is an integer, in which case the result will be a packed integer
which you can decode using unpack with the "i" (or "I") format.
An example testing if Nagle's algorithm is turned on on a socket:
use Socket qw(:all);
defined(my $tcp = getprotobyname("tcp"))
or die "Could not determine the protocol number for tcp";
# my $tcp = IPPROTO_TCP; # Alternative
my $packed = getsockopt($socket, $tcp, TCP_NODELAY)
or die "Could not query TCP_NODELAY socket option: $!";
my $nodelay = unpack("I", $packed);
print "Nagle's algorithm is turned ", $nodelay ? "off\n" : "on\n";
glob EXPR
glob In list context, returns a (possibly empty) list of filename expansions on
the value of EXPR such as the standard Unix shell /bin/csh would do. In
scalar context, glob iterates through such filename expansions, returning
undef when the list is exhausted. This is the internal function implement-
ing the "<*.c>" operator, but you can use it directly. If EXPR is omitted,
$_ is used. The "<*.c>" operator is discussed in more detail in "I/O Oper-
ators" in perlop.
Beginning with v5.6.0, this operator is implemented using the standard
"File::Glob" extension. See File::Glob for details.
gmtime EXPR
gmtime Converts a time as returned by the time function to an 9-element list with
the time localized for the standard Greenwich time zone. Typically used as
follows:
# 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
($sec,$min,$hour,$mday,$mon,$year,$wday,$yday,$isdst) =
gmtime(time);
All list elements are numeric, and come straight out of the C 'struct tm'.
$sec, $min, and $hour are the seconds, minutes, and hours of the specified
time. $mday is the day of the month, and $mon is the month itself, in the
range 0..11 with 0 indicating January and 11 indicating December. $year is
the number of years since 1900. That is, $year is 123 in year 2023. $wday
is the day of the week, with 0 indicating Sunday and 3 indicating Wednes-
day. $yday is the day of the year, in the range 0..364 (or 0..365 in leap
years). $isdst is always 0.
Note that the $year element is not simply the last two digits of the year.
If you assume it is then you create non-Y2K-compliant programs--and you
wouldn't want to do that, would you?
The proper way to get a complete 4-digit year is simply:
$year += 1900;
And to get the last two digits of the year (e.g., '01' in 2001) do:
$year = sprintf("%02d", $year % 100);
If EXPR is omitted, "gmtime()" uses the current time ("gmtime(time)").
In scalar context, "gmtime()" returns the ctime(3) value:
$now_string = gmtime; # e.g., "Thu Oct 13 04:54:34 1994"
If you need local time instead of GMT use the "localtime" builtin. See
also the "timegm" function provided by the "Time::Local" module, and the
strftime(3) and mktime(3) functions available via the POSIX module.
This scalar value is not locale dependent (see perllocale), but is instead
a Perl builtin. To get somewhat similar but locale dependent date strings,
see the example in "localtime".
See "gmtime" in perlport for portability concerns.
goto LABEL
goto EXPR
goto &NAME
The "goto-LABEL" form finds the statement labeled with LABEL and resumes
execution there. It may not be used to go into any construct that requires
initialization, such as a subroutine or a "foreach" loop. It also can't be
used to go into a construct that is optimized away, or to get out of a
block or subroutine given to "sort". It can be used to go almost anywhere
else within the dynamic scope, including out of subroutines, but it's usu-
ally better to use some other construct such as "last" or "die". The
author of Perl has never felt the need to use this form of "goto" (in Perl,
that is--C is another matter). (The difference being that C does not offer
named loops combined with loop control. Perl does, and this replaces most
structured uses of "goto" in other languages.)
The "goto-EXPR" form expects a label name, whose scope will be resolved
dynamically. This allows for computed "goto"s per FORTRAN, but isn't nec-
essarily recommended if you're optimizing for maintainability:
goto ("FOO", "BAR", "GLARCH")[$i];
The "goto-&NAME" form is quite different from the other forms of "goto".
In fact, it isn't a goto in the normal sense at all, and doesn't have the
stigma associated with other gotos. Instead, it exits the current subrou-
tine (losing any changes set by local()) and immediately calls in its place
the named subroutine using the current value of @_. This is used by
"AUTOLOAD" subroutines that wish to load another subroutine and then pre-
tend that the other subroutine had been called in the first place (except
that any modifications to @_ in the current subroutine are propagated to
the other subroutine.) After the "goto", not even "caller" will be able to
tell that this routine was called first.
NAME needn't be the name of a subroutine; it can be a scalar variable con-
taining a code reference, or a block that evaluates to a code reference.
grep BLOCK LIST
grep EXPR,LIST
This is similar in spirit to, but not the same as, grep(1) and its rela-
tives. In particular, it is not limited to using regular expressions.
Evaluates the BLOCK or EXPR for each element of LIST (locally setting $_ to
each element) and returns the list value consisting of those elements for
which the expression evaluated to true. In scalar context, returns the
number of times the expression was true.
@foo = grep(!/^#/, @bar); # weed out comments
or equivalently,
@foo = grep {!/^#/} @bar; # weed out comments
Note that $_ is an alias to the list value, so it can be used to modify the
elements of the LIST. While this is useful and supported, it can cause
bizarre results if the elements of LIST are not variables. Similarly, grep
returns aliases into the original list, much as a for loop's index variable
aliases the list elements. That is, modifying an element of a list
returned by grep (for example, in a "foreach", "map" or another "grep")
actually modifies the element in the original list. This is usually some-
thing to be avoided when writing clear code.
See also "map" for a list composed of the results of the BLOCK or EXPR.
hex EXPR
hex Interprets EXPR as a hex string and returns the corresponding value. (To
convert strings that might start with either 0, "0x", or "0b", see "oct".)
If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
print hex '0xAf'; # prints '175'
print hex 'aF'; # same
Hex strings may only represent integers. Strings that would cause integer
overflow trigger a warning. Leading whitespace is not stripped, unlike
oct(). To present something as hex, look into "printf", "sprintf", or
"unpack".
import LIST
There is no builtin "import" function. It is just an ordinary method (sub-
routine) defined (or inherited) by modules that wish to export names to
another module. The "use" function calls the "import" method for the pack-
age used. See also "use", perlmod, and Exporter.
index STR,SUBSTR,POSITION
index STR,SUBSTR
The index function searches for one string within another, but without the
wildcard-like behavior of a full regular-expression pattern match. It
returns the position of the first occurrence of SUBSTR in STR at or after
POSITION. If POSITION is omitted, starts searching from the beginning of
the string. POSITION before the beginning of the string or after its end
is treated as if it were the beginning or the end, respectively. POSITION
and the return value are based at 0 (or whatever you've set the $[ variable
to--but don't do that). If the substring is not found, "index" returns one
less than the base, ordinarily "-1".
int EXPR
int Returns the integer portion of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, uses $_. You
should not use this function for rounding: one because it truncates towards
0, and two because machine representations of floating point numbers can
sometimes produce counterintuitive results. For example,
"int(-6.725/0.025)" produces -268 rather than the correct -269; that's
because it's really more like -268.99999999999994315658 instead. Usually,
the "sprintf", "printf", or the "POSIX::floor" and "POSIX::ceil" functions
will serve you better than will int().
ioctl FILEHANDLE,FUNCTION,SCALAR
Implements the ioctl(2) function. You'll probably first have to say
require "sys/ioctl.ph"; # probably in $Config{archlib}/sys/ioctl.ph
to get the correct function definitions. If sys/ioctl.ph doesn't exist or
doesn't have the correct definitions you'll have to roll your own, based on
your C header files such as <sys/ioctl.h>. (There is a Perl script called
h2ph that comes with the Perl kit that may help you in this, but it's non-
trivial.) SCALAR will be read and/or written depending on the FUNCTION--a
pointer to the string value of SCALAR will be passed as the third argument
of the actual "ioctl" call. (If SCALAR has no string value but does have a
numeric value, that value will be passed rather than a pointer to the
string value. To guarantee this to be true, add a 0 to the scalar before
using it.) The "pack" and "unpack" functions may be needed to manipulate
the values of structures used by "ioctl".
The return value of "ioctl" (and "fcntl") is as follows:
if OS returns: then Perl returns:
-1 undefined value
0 string "0 but true"
anything else that number
Thus Perl returns true on success and false on failure, yet you can still
easily determine the actual value returned by the operating system:
$retval = ioctl(...) || -1;
printf "System returned %d\n", $retval;
The special string "0 but true" is exempt from -w complaints about improper
numeric conversions.
join EXPR,LIST
Joins the separate strings of LIST into a single string with fields sepa-
rated by the value of EXPR, and returns that new string. Example:
$rec = join(':', $login,$passwd,$uid,$gid,$gcos,$home,$shell);
Beware that unlike "split", "join" doesn't take a pattern as its first
argument. Compare "split".
keys HASH
Returns a list consisting of all the keys of the named hash. (In scalar
context, returns the number of keys.)
The keys are returned in an apparently random order. The actual random
order is subject to change in future versions of perl, but it is guaranteed
to be the same order as either the "values" or "each" function produces
(given that the hash has not been modified). Since Perl 5.8.1 the ordering
is different even between different runs of Perl for security reasons (see
"Algorithmic Complexity Attacks" in perlsec).
As a side effect, calling keys() resets the HASH's internal iterator (see
"each"). In particular, calling keys() in void context resets the iterator
with no other overhead.
Here is yet another way to print your environment:
@keys = keys %ENV;
@values = values %ENV;
while (@keys) {
print pop(@keys), '=', pop(@values), "\n";
}
or how about sorted by key:
foreach $key (sort(keys %ENV)) {
print $key, '=', $ENV{$key}, "\n";
}
The returned values are copies of the original keys in the hash, so modify-
ing them will not affect the original hash. Compare "values".
To sort a hash by value, you'll need to use a "sort" function. Here's a
descending numeric sort of a hash by its values:
foreach $key (sort { $hash{$b} <=> $hash{$a} } keys %hash) {
printf "%4d %s\n", $hash{$key}, $key;
}
As an lvalue "keys" allows you to increase the number of hash buckets allo-
cated for the given hash. This can gain you a measure of efficiency if you
know the hash is going to get big. (This is similar to pre-extending an
array by assigning a larger number to $#array.) If you say
keys %hash = 200;
then %hash will have at least 200 buckets allocated for it--256 of them, in
fact, since it rounds up to the next power of two. These buckets will be
retained even if you do "%hash = ()", use "undef %hash" if you want to free
the storage while %hash is still in scope. You can't shrink the number of
buckets allocated for the hash using "keys" in this way (but you needn't
worry about doing this by accident, as trying has no effect).
See also "each", "values" and "sort".
kill SIGNAL, LIST
Sends a signal to a list of processes. Returns the number of processes
successfully signaled (which is not necessarily the same as the number
actually killed).
$cnt = kill 1, $child1, $child2;
kill 9, @goners;
If SIGNAL is zero, no signal is sent to the process. This is a useful way
to check that a child process is alive and hasn't changed its UID. See
perlport for notes on the portability of this construct.
Unlike in the shell, if SIGNAL is negative, it kills process groups instead
of processes. (On System V, a negative PROCESS number will also kill pro-
cess groups, but that's not portable.) That means you usually want to use
positive not negative signals. You may also use a signal name in quotes.
See "Signals" in perlipc for more details.
last LABEL
last The "last" command is like the "break" statement in C (as used in loops);
it immediately exits the loop in question. If the LABEL is omitted, the
command refers to the innermost enclosing loop. The "continue" block, if
any, is not executed:
LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
last LINE if /^$/; # exit when done with header
#...
}
"last" cannot be used to exit a block which returns a value such as "eval
{}", "sub {}" or "do {}", and should not be used to exit a grep() or map()
operation.
Note that a block by itself is semantically identical to a loop that exe-
cutes once. Thus "last" can be used to effect an early exit out of such a
block.
See also "continue" for an illustration of how "last", "next", and "redo"
work.
lc EXPR
lc Returns a lowercased version of EXPR. This is the internal function imple-
menting the "\L" escape in double-quoted strings. Respects current
LC_CTYPE locale if "use locale" in force. See perllocale and perlunicode
for more details about locale and Unicode support.
If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
lcfirst EXPR
lcfirst Returns the value of EXPR with the first character lowercased. This is the
internal function implementing the "\l" escape in double-quoted strings.
Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if "use locale" in force. See perllocale
and perlunicode for more details about locale and Unicode support.
If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
length EXPR
length Returns the length in characters of the value of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted,
returns length of $_. Note that this cannot be used on an entire array or
hash to find out how many elements these have. For that, use "scalar
@array" and "scalar keys %hash" respectively.
Note the characters: if the EXPR is in Unicode, you will get the number of
characters, not the number of bytes. To get the length in bytes, use "do {
use bytes; length(EXPR) }", see bytes.
link OLDFILE,NEWFILE
Creates a new filename linked to the old filename. Returns true for suc-
cess, false otherwise.
listen SOCKET,QUEUESIZE
Does the same thing that the listen system call does. Returns true if it
succeeded, false otherwise. See the example in "Sockets: Client/Server
Communication" in perlipc.
local EXPR
You really probably want to be using "my" instead, because "local" isn't
what most people think of as "local". See "Private Variables via my()" in
perlsub for details.
A local modifies the listed variables to be local to the enclosing block,
file, or eval. If more than one value is listed, the list must be placed
in parentheses. See "Temporary Values via local()" in perlsub for details,
including issues with tied arrays and hashes.
localtime EXPR
localtime
Converts a time as returned by the time function to a 9-element list with
the time analyzed for the local time zone. Typically used as follows:
# 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
($sec,$min,$hour,$mday,$mon,$year,$wday,$yday,$isdst) =
localtime(time);
All list elements are numeric, and come straight out of the C 'struct tm'.
$sec, $min, and $hour are the seconds, minutes, and hours of the specified
time.
$mday is the day of the month, and $mon is the month itself, in the range
0..11 with 0 indicating January and 11 indicating December. This makes it
easy to get a month name from a list:
my @abbr = qw( Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec );
print "$abbr[$mon] $mday";
# $mon=9, $mday=18 gives "Oct 18"
$year is the number of years since 1900, not just the last two digits of
the year. That is, $year is 123 in year 2023. The proper way to get a
complete 4-digit year is simply:
$year += 1900;
To get the last two digits of the year (e.g., '01' in 2001) do:
$year = sprintf("%02d", $year % 100);
$wday is the day of the week, with 0 indicating Sunday and 3 indicating
Wednesday. $yday is the day of the year, in the range 0..364 (or 0..365 in
leap years.)
$isdst is true if the specified time occurs during Daylight Saving Time,
false otherwise.
If EXPR is omitted, "localtime()" uses the current time ("local-
time(time)").
In scalar context, "localtime()" returns the ctime(3) value:
$now_string = localtime; # e.g., "Thu Oct 13 04:54:34 1994"
This scalar value is not locale dependent but is a Perl builtin. For GMT
instead of local time use the "gmtime" builtin. See also the "Time::Local"
module (to convert the second, minutes, hours, ... back to the integer
value returned by time()), and the POSIX module's strftime(3) and mktime(3)
functions.
To get somewhat similar but locale dependent date strings, set up your
locale environment variables appropriately (please see perllocale) and try
for example:
use POSIX qw(strftime);
$now_string = strftime "%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Y", localtime;
# or for GMT formatted appropriately for your locale:
$now_string = strftime "%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Y", gmtime;
Note that the %a and %b, the short forms of the day of the week and the
month of the year, may not necessarily be three characters wide.
See "localtime" in perlport for portability concerns.
lock THING
This function places an advisory lock on a shared variable, or referenced
object contained in THING until the lock goes out of scope.
lock() is a "weak keyword" : this means that if you've defined a function
by this name (before any calls to it), that function will be called
instead. (However, if you've said "use threads", lock() is always a key-
word.) See threads.
log EXPR
log Returns the natural logarithm (base e) of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted,
returns log of $_. To get the log of another base, use basic algebra: The
base-N log of a number is equal to the natural log of that number divided
by the natural log of N. For example:
sub log10 {
my $n = shift;
return log($n)/log(10);
}
See also "exp" for the inverse operation.
lstat EXPR
lstat Does the same thing as the "stat" function (including setting the special
"_" filehandle) but stats a symbolic link instead of the file the symbolic
link points to. If symbolic links are unimplemented on your system, a nor-
mal "stat" is done. For much more detailed information, please see the
documentation for "stat".
If EXPR is omitted, stats $_.
m// The match operator. See perlop.
map BLOCK LIST
map EXPR,LIST
Evaluates the BLOCK or EXPR for each element of LIST (locally setting $_ to
each element) and returns the list value composed of the results of each
such evaluation. In scalar context, returns the total number of elements
so generated. Evaluates BLOCK or EXPR in list context, so each element of
LIST may produce zero, one, or more elements in the returned value.
@chars = map(chr, @nums);
translates a list of numbers to the corresponding characters. And
%hash = map { getkey($_) => $_ } @array;
is just a funny way to write
%hash = ();
foreach $_ (@array) {
$hash{getkey($_)} = $_;
}
Note that $_ is an alias to the list value, so it can be used to modify the
elements of the LIST. While this is useful and supported, it can cause
bizarre results if the elements of LIST are not variables. Using a regular
"foreach" loop for this purpose would be clearer in most cases. See also
"grep" for an array composed of those items of the original list for which
the BLOCK or EXPR evaluates to true.
"{" starts both hash references and blocks, so "map { ..." could be either
the start of map BLOCK LIST or map EXPR, LIST. Because perl doesn't look
ahead for the closing "}" it has to take a guess at which its dealing with
based what it finds just after the "{". Usually it gets it right, but if it
doesn't it won't realize something is wrong until it gets to the "}" and
encounters the missing (or unexpected) comma. The syntax error will be
reported close to the "}" but you'll need to change something near the "{"
such as using a unary "+" to give perl some help:
%hash = map { "\L$_", 1 } @array # perl guesses EXPR. wrong
%hash = map { +"\L$_", 1 } @array # perl guesses BLOCK. right
%hash = map { ("\L$_", 1) } @array # this also works
%hash = map { lc($_), 1 } @array # as does this.
%hash = map +( lc($_), 1 ), @array # this is EXPR and works!
%hash = map ( lc($_), 1 ), @array # evaluates to (1, @array)
or to force an anon hash constructor use "+{"
@hashes = map +{ lc($_), 1 }, @array # EXPR, so needs , at end
and you get list of anonymous hashes each with only 1 entry.
mkdir FILENAME,MASK
mkdir FILENAME
Creates the directory specified by FILENAME, with permissions specified by
MASK (as modified by "umask"). If it succeeds it returns true, otherwise
it returns false and sets $! (errno). If omitted, MASK defaults to 0777.
In general, it is better to create directories with permissive MASK, and
let the user modify that with their "umask", than it is to supply a
restrictive MASK and give the user no way to be more permissive. The
exceptions to this rule are when the file or directory should be kept pri-
vate (mail files, for instance). The perlfunc(1) entry on "umask" dis-
cusses the choice of MASK in more detail.
Note that according to the POSIX 1003.1-1996 the FILENAME may have any num-
ber of trailing slashes. Some operating and filesystems do not get this
right, so Perl automatically removes all trailing slashes to keep everyone
happy.
msgctl ID,CMD,ARG
Calls the System V IPC function msgctl(2). You'll probably have to say
use IPC::SysV;
first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is "IPC_STAT", then
ARG must be a variable that will hold the returned "msqid_ds" structure.
Returns like "ioctl": the undefined value for error, "0 but true" for zero,
or the actual return value otherwise. See also "SysV IPC" in perlipc,
"IPC::SysV", and "IPC::Semaphore" documentation.
msgget KEY,FLAGS
Calls the System V IPC function msgget(2). Returns the message queue id,
or the undefined value if there is an error. See also "SysV IPC" in per-
lipc and "IPC::SysV" and "IPC::Msg" documentation.
msgrcv ID,VAR,SIZE,TYPE,FLAGS
Calls the System V IPC function msgrcv to receive a message from message
queue ID into variable VAR with a maximum message size of SIZE. Note that
when a message is received, the message type as a native long integer will
be the first thing in VAR, followed by the actual message. This packing
may be opened with "unpack("l! a*")". Taints the variable. Returns true
if successful, or false if there is an error. See also "SysV IPC" in per-
lipc, "IPC::SysV", and "IPC::SysV::Msg" documentation.
msgsnd ID,MSG,FLAGS
Calls the System V IPC function msgsnd to send the message MSG to the mes-
sage queue ID. MSG must begin with the native long integer message type,
and be followed by the length of the actual message, and finally the mes-
sage itself. This kind of packing can be achieved with "pack("l! a*",
$type, $message)". Returns true if successful, or false if there is an
error. See also "IPC::SysV" and "IPC::SysV::Msg" documentation.
my EXPR
my TYPE EXPR
my EXPR : ATTRS
my TYPE EXPR : ATTRS
A "my" declares the listed variables to be local (lexically) to the enclos-
ing block, file, or "eval". If more than one value is listed, the list
must be placed in parentheses.
The exact semantics and interface of TYPE and ATTRS are still evolving.
TYPE is currently bound to the use of "fields" pragma, and attributes are
handled using the "attributes" pragma, or starting from Perl 5.8.0 also via
the "Attribute::Handlers" module. See "Private Variables via my()" in
perlsub for details, and fields, attributes, and Attribute::Handlers.
next LABEL
next The "next" command is like the "continue" statement in C; it starts the
next iteration of the loop:
LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
next LINE if /^#/; # discard comments
#...
}
Note that if there were a "continue" block on the above, it would get exe-
cuted even on discarded lines. If the LABEL is omitted, the command refers
to the innermost enclosing loop.
"next" cannot be used to exit a block which returns a value such as "eval
{}", "sub {}" or "do {}", and should not be used to exit a grep() or map()
operation.
Note that a block by itself is semantically identical to a loop that exe-
cutes once. Thus "next" will exit such a block early.
See also "continue" for an illustration of how "last", "next", and "redo"
work.
no Module VERSION LIST
no Module VERSION
no Module LIST
no Module
See the "use" function, which "no" is the opposite of.
oct EXPR
oct Interprets EXPR as an octal string and returns the corresponding value.
(If EXPR happens to start off with "0x", interprets it as a hex string. If
EXPR starts off with "0b", it is interpreted as a binary string. Leading
whitespace is ignored in all three cases.) The following will handle deci-
mal, binary, octal, and hex in the standard Perl or C notation:
$val = oct($val) if $val =~ /^0/;
If EXPR is omitted, uses $_. To go the other way (produce a number in
octal), use sprintf() or printf():
$perms = (stat("filename"))[2] & 07777;
$oct_perms = sprintf "%lo", $perms;
The oct() function is commonly used when a string such as 644 needs to be
converted into a file mode, for example. (Although perl will automatically
convert strings into numbers as needed, this automatic conversion assumes
base 10.)
open FILEHANDLE,EXPR
open FILEHANDLE,MODE,EXPR
open FILEHANDLE,MODE,EXPR,LIST
open FILEHANDLE,MODE,REFERENCE
open FILEHANDLE
Opens the file whose filename is given by EXPR, and associates it with
FILEHANDLE.
(The following is a comprehensive reference to open(): for a gentler intro-
duction you may consider perlopentut.)
If FILEHANDLE is an undefined scalar variable (or array or hash element)
the variable is assigned a reference to a new anonymous filehandle, other-
wise if FILEHANDLE is an expression, its value is used as the name of the
real filehandle wanted. (This is considered a symbolic reference, so "use
strict 'refs'" should not be in effect.)
If EXPR is omitted, the scalar variable of the same name as the FILEHANDLE
contains the filename. (Note that lexical variables--those declared with
"my"--will not work for this purpose; so if you're using "my", specify EXPR
in your call to open.)
If three or more arguments are specified then the mode of opening and the
file name are separate. If MODE is '<' or nothing, the file is opened for
input. If MODE is '>', the file is truncated and opened for output, being
created if necessary. If MODE is '>>', the file is opened for appending,
again being created if necessary.
You can put a '+' in front of the '>' or '<' to indicate that you want both
read and write access to the file; thus '+<' is almost always preferred for
read/write updates--the '+>' mode would clobber the file first. You can't
usually use either read-write mode for updating textfiles, since they have
variable length records. See the -i switch in perlrun for a better
approach. The file is created with permissions of 0666 modified by the
process' "umask" value.
These various prefixes correspond to the fopen(3) modes of 'r', 'r+', 'w',
'w+', 'a', and 'a+'.
In the 2-arguments (and 1-argument) form of the call the mode and filename
should be concatenated (in this order), possibly separated by spaces. It
is possible to omit the mode in these forms if the mode is '<'.
If the filename begins with '|', the filename is interpreted as a command
to which output is to be piped, and if the filename ends with a '|', the
filename is interpreted as a command which pipes output to us. See "Using
open() for IPC" in perlipc for more examples of this. (You are not allowed
to "open" to a command that pipes both in and out, but see IPC::Open2,
IPC::Open3, and "Bidirectional Communication with Another Process" in per-
lipc for alternatives.)
For three or more arguments if MODE is '|-', the filename is interpreted as
a command to which output is to be piped, and if MODE is '-|', the filename
is interpreted as a command which pipes output to us. In the 2-arguments
(and 1-argument) form one should replace dash ('-') with the command. See
"Using open() for IPC" in perlipc for more examples of this. (You are not
allowed to "open" to a command that pipes both in and out, but see
IPC::Open2, IPC::Open3, and "Bidirectional Communication" in perlipc for
alternatives.)
In the three-or-more argument form of pipe opens, if LIST is specified
(extra arguments after the command name) then LIST becomes arguments to the
command invoked if the platform supports it. The meaning of "open" with
more than three arguments for non-pipe modes is not yet specified. Experi-
mental "layers" may give extra LIST arguments meaning.
In the 2-arguments (and 1-argument) form opening '-' opens STDIN and open-
ing '>-' opens STDOUT.
You may use the three-argument form of open to specify IO "layers" (some-
times also referred to as "disciplines") to be applied to the handle that
affect how the input and output are processed (see open and PerlIO for more
details). For example
open(FH, "<:utf8", "file")
will open the UTF-8 encoded file containing Unicode characters, see perlu-
niintro. Note that if layers are specified in the three-arg form then
default layers stored in ${^OPEN} (see perlvar; usually set by the open
pragma or the switch -CioD) are ignored.
Open returns nonzero upon success, the undefined value otherwise. If the
"open" involved a pipe, the return value happens to be the pid of the sub-
process.
If you're running Perl on a system that distinguishes between text files
and binary files, then you should check out "binmode" for tips for dealing
with this. The key distinction between systems that need "binmode" and
those that don't is their text file formats. Systems like Unix, Mac OS,
and Plan 9, which delimit lines with a single character, and which encode
that character in C as "\n", do not need "binmode". The rest need it.
When opening a file, it's usually a bad idea to continue normal execution
if the request failed, so "open" is frequently used in connection with
"die". Even if "die" won't do what you want (say, in a CGI script, where
you want to make a nicely formatted error message (but there are modules
that can help with that problem)) you should always check the return value
from opening a file. The infrequent exception is when working with an
unopened filehandle is actually what you want to do.
As a special case the 3-arg form with a read/write mode and the third argu-
ment being "undef":
open(TMP, "+>", undef) or die ...
opens a filehandle to an anonymous temporary file. Also using "+<" works
for symmetry, but you really should consider writing something to the tem-
porary file first. You will need to seek() to do the reading.
Since v5.8.0, perl has built using PerlIO by default. Unless you've
changed this (i.e. Configure -Uuseperlio), you can open file handles to "in
memory" files held in Perl scalars via:
open($fh, '>', \$variable) || ..
Though if you try to re-open "STDOUT" or "STDERR" as an "in memory" file,
you have to close it first:
close STDOUT;
open STDOUT, '>', \$variable or die "Can't open STDOUT: $!";
Examples:
$ARTICLE = 100;
open ARTICLE or die "Can't find article $ARTICLE: $!\n";
while (<ARTICLE>) {...
open(LOG, '>>/usr/spool/news/twitlog'); # (log is reserved)
# if the open fails, output is discarded
open(DBASE, '+<', 'dbase.mine') # open for update
or die "Can't open 'dbase.mine' for update: $!";
open(DBASE, '+<dbase.mine') # ditto
or die "Can't open 'dbase.mine' for update: $!";
open(ARTICLE, '-|', "caesar <$article") # decrypt article
or die "Can't start caesar: $!";
open(ARTICLE, "caesar <$article |") # ditto
or die "Can't start caesar: $!";
open(EXTRACT, "|sort >Tmp$$") # $$ is our process id
or die "Can't start sort: $!";
# in memory files
open(MEMORY,'>', \$var)
or die "Can't open memory file: $!";
print MEMORY "foo!\n"; # output will end up in $var
# process argument list of files along with any includes
foreach $file (@ARGV) {
process($file, 'fh00');
}
sub process {
my($filename, $input) = @_;
$input++; # this is a string increment
unless (open($input, $filename)) {
print STDERR "Can't open $filename: $!\n";
return;
}
local $_;
while (<$input>) { # note use of indirection
if (/^#include "(.*)"/) {
process($1, $input);
next;
}
#... # whatever
}
}
See perliol for detailed info on PerlIO.
You may also, in the Bourne shell tradition, specify an EXPR beginning with
'>&', in which case the rest of the string is interpreted as the name of a
filehandle (or file descriptor, if numeric) to be duped (as dup(2)) and
opened. You may use "&" after ">", ">>", "<", "+>", "+>>", and "+<". The
mode you specify should match the mode of the original filehandle. (Duping
a filehandle does not take into account any existing contents of IO
buffers.) If you use the 3-arg form then you can pass either a number, the
name of a filehandle or the normal "reference to a glob".
Here is a script that saves, redirects, and restores "STDOUT" and "STDERR"
using various methods:
#!/usr/bin/perl
open my $oldout, ">&STDOUT" or die "Can't dup STDOUT: $!";
open OLDERR, ">&", \*STDERR or die "Can't dup STDERR: $!";
open STDOUT, '>', "foo.out" or die "Can't redirect STDOUT: $!";
open STDERR, ">&STDOUT" or die "Can't dup STDOUT: $!";
select STDERR; $| = 1; # make unbuffered
select STDOUT; $| = 1; # make unbuffered
print STDOUT "stdout 1\n"; # this works for
print STDERR "stderr 1\n"; # subprocesses too
open STDOUT, ">&", $oldout or die "Can't dup \$oldout: $!";
open STDERR, ">&OLDERR" or die "Can't dup OLDERR: $!";
print STDOUT "stdout 2\n";
print STDERR "stderr 2\n";
If you specify '<&=X', where "X" is a file descriptor number or a filehan-
dle, then Perl will do an equivalent of C's "fdopen" of that file descrip-
tor (and not call dup(2)); this is more parsimonious of file descriptors.
For example:
# open for input, reusing the fileno of $fd
open(FILEHANDLE, "<&=$fd")
or
open(FILEHANDLE, "<&=", $fd)
or
# open for append, using the fileno of OLDFH
open(FH, ">>&=", OLDFH)
or
open(FH, ">>&=OLDFH")
Being parsimonious on filehandles is also useful (besides being parsimo-
nious) for example when something is dependent on file descriptors, like
for example locking using flock(). If you do just "open(A, '>>&B')", the
filehandle A will not have the same file descriptor as B, and therefore
flock(A) will not flock(B), and vice versa. But with "open(A, '>>&=B')"
the filehandles will share the same file descriptor.
Note that if you are using Perls older than 5.8.0, Perl will be using the
standard C libraries' fdopen() to implement the "=" functionality. On many
UNIX systems fdopen() fails when file descriptors exceed a certain value,
typically 255. For Perls 5.8.0 and later, PerlIO is most often the
default.
You can see whether Perl has been compiled with PerlIO or not by running
"perl -V" and looking for "useperlio=" line. If "useperlio" is "define",
you have PerlIO, otherwise you don't.
If you open a pipe on the command '-', i.e., either '|-' or '-|' with
2-arguments (or 1-argument) form of open(), then there is an implicit fork
done, and the return value of open is the pid of the child within the par-
ent process, and 0 within the child process. (Use "defined($pid)" to
determine whether the open was successful.) The filehandle behaves nor-
mally for the parent, but i/o to that filehandle is piped from/to the STD-
OUT/STDIN of the child process. In the child process the filehandle isn't
opened--i/o happens from/to the new STDOUT or STDIN. Typically this is
used like the normal piped open when you want to exercise more control over
just how the pipe command gets executed, such as when you are running
setuid, and don't want to have to scan shell commands for metacharacters.
The following triples are more or less equivalent:
open(FOO, "|tr '[a-z]' '[A-Z]'");
open(FOO, '|-', "tr '[a-z]' '[A-Z]'");
open(FOO, '|-') || exec 'tr', '[a-z]', '[A-Z]';
open(FOO, '|-', "tr", '[a-z]', '[A-Z]');
open(FOO, "cat -n '$file'|");
open(FOO, '-|', "cat -n '$file'");
open(FOO, '-|') || exec 'cat', '-n', $file;
open(FOO, '-|', "cat", '-n', $file);
The last example in each block shows the pipe as "list form", which is not
yet supported on all platforms. A good rule of thumb is that if your plat-
form has true "fork()" (in other words, if your platform is UNIX) you can
use the list form.
See "Safe Pipe Opens" in perlipc for more examples of this.
Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for out-
put before any operation that may do a fork, but this may not be supported
on some platforms (see perlport). To be safe, you may need to set $|
($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the "autoflush()" method of "IO::Handle" on
any open handles.
On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will be set
for the newly opened file descriptor as determined by the value of $^F.
See "$^F" in perlvar.
Closing any piped filehandle causes the parent process to wait for the
child to finish, and returns the status value in $?.
The filename passed to 2-argument (or 1-argument) form of open() will have
leading and trailing whitespace deleted, and the normal redirection charac-
ters honored. This property, known as "magic open", can often be used to
good effect. A user could specify a filename of "rsh cat file |", or you
could change certain filenames as needed:
$filename =~ s/(.*\.gz)\s*$/gzip -dc < $1|/;
open(FH, $filename) or die "Can't open $filename: $!";
Use 3-argument form to open a file with arbitrary weird characters in it,
open(FOO, '<', $file);
otherwise it's necessary to protect any leading and trailing whitespace:
$file =~ s#^(\s)#./$1#;
open(FOO, "< $file\0");
(this may not work on some bizarre filesystems). One should conscien-
tiously choose between the magic and 3-arguments form of open():
open IN, $ARGV[0];
will allow the user to specify an argument of the form "rsh cat file |",
but will not work on a filename which happens to have a trailing space,
while
open IN, '<', $ARGV[0];
will have exactly the opposite restrictions.
If you want a "real" C "open" (see open(2) on your system), then you should
use the "sysopen" function, which involves no such magic (but may use sub-
tly different filemodes than Perl open(), which is mapped to C fopen()).
This is another way to protect your filenames from interpretation. For
example:
use IO::Handle;
sysopen(HANDLE, $path, O_RDWR|O_CREAT|O_EXCL)
or die "sysopen $path: $!";
$oldfh = select(HANDLE); $| = 1; select($oldfh);
print HANDLE "stuff $$\n";
seek(HANDLE, 0, 0);
print "File contains: ", <HANDLE>;
Using the constructor from the "IO::Handle" package (or one of its sub-
classes, such as "IO::File" or "IO::Socket"), you can generate anonymous
filehandles that have the scope of whatever variables hold references to
them, and automatically close whenever and however you leave that scope:
use IO::File;
#...
sub read_myfile_munged {
my $ALL = shift;
my $handle = new IO::File;
open($handle, "myfile") or die "myfile: $!";
$first = <$handle>
or return (); # Automatically closed here.
mung $first or die "mung failed"; # Or here.
return $first, <$handle> if $ALL; # Or here.
$first; # Or here.
}
See "seek" for some details about mixing reading and writing.
opendir DIRHANDLE,EXPR
Opens a directory named EXPR for processing by "readdir", "telldir",
"seekdir", "rewinddir", and "closedir". Returns true if successful.
DIRHANDLE may be an expression whose value can be used as an indirect
dirhandle, usually the real dirhandle name. If DIRHANDLE is an undefined
scalar variable (or array or hash element), the variable is assigned a ref-
erence to a new anonymous dirhandle. DIRHANDLEs have their own namespace
separate from FILEHANDLEs.
ord EXPR
ord Returns the numeric (the native 8-bit encoding, like ASCII or EBCDIC, or
Unicode) value of the first character of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, uses
$_.
For the reverse, see "chr". See perlunicode and encoding for more about
Unicode.
our EXPR
our EXPR TYPE
our EXPR : ATTRS
our TYPE EXPR : ATTRS
"our" associates a simple name with a package variable in the current pack-
age for use within the current scope. When "use strict 'vars'" is in
effect, "our" lets you use declared global variables without qualifying
them with package names, within the lexical scope of the "our" declaration.
In this way "our" differs from "use vars", which is package scoped.
Unlike "my", which both allocates storage for a variable and associates a
simple name with that storage for use within the current scope, "our" asso-
ciates a simple name with a package variable in the current package, for
use within the current scope. In other words, "our" has the same scoping
rules as "my", but does not necessarily create a variable.
If more than one value is listed, the list must be placed in parentheses.
our $foo;
our($bar, $baz);
An "our" declaration declares a global variable that will be visible across
its entire lexical scope, even across package boundaries. The package in
which the variable is entered is determined at the point of the declara-
tion, not at the point of use. This means the following behavior holds:
package Foo;
our $bar; # declares $Foo::bar for rest of lexical scope
$bar = 20;
package Bar;
print $bar; # prints 20, as it refers to $Foo::bar
Multiple "our" declarations with the same name in the same lexical scope
are allowed if they are in different packages. If they happen to be in the
same package, Perl will emit warnings if you have asked for them, just like
multiple "my" declarations. Unlike a second "my" declaration, which will
bind the name to a fresh variable, a second "our" declaration in the same
package, in the same scope, is merely redundant.
use warnings;
package Foo;
our $bar; # declares $Foo::bar for rest of lexical scope
$bar = 20;
package Bar;
our $bar = 30; # declares $Bar::bar for rest of lexical scope
print $bar; # prints 30
our $bar; # emits warning but has no other effect
print $bar; # still prints 30
An "our" declaration may also have a list of attributes associated with it.
The exact semantics and interface of TYPE and ATTRS are still evolving.
TYPE is currently bound to the use of "fields" pragma, and attributes are
handled using the "attributes" pragma, or starting from Perl 5.8.0 also via
the "Attribute::Handlers" module. See "Private Variables via my()" in
perlsub for details, and fields, attributes, and Attribute::Handlers.
The only currently recognized "our()" attribute is "unique" which indicates
that a single copy of the global is to be used by all interpreters should
the program happen to be running in a multi-interpreter environment. (The
default behaviour would be for each interpreter to have its own copy of the
global.) Examples:
our @EXPORT : unique = qw(foo);
our %EXPORT_TAGS : unique = (bar => [qw(aa bb cc)]);
our $VERSION : unique = "1.00";
Note that this attribute also has the effect of making the global readonly
when the first new interpreter is cloned (for example, when the first new
thread is created).
Multi-interpreter environments can come to being either through the fork()
emulation on Windows platforms, or by embedding perl in a multi-threaded
application. The "unique" attribute does nothing in all other environ-
ments.
Warning: the current implementation of this attribute operates on the type-
glob associated with the variable; this means that "our $x : unique" also
has the effect of "our @x : unique; our %x : unique". This may be subject
to change.
pack TEMPLATE,LIST
Takes a LIST of values and converts it into a string using the rules given
by the TEMPLATE. The resulting string is the concatenation of the con-
verted values. Typically, each converted value looks like its machine-
level representation. For example, on 32-bit machines a converted integer
may be represented by a sequence of 4 bytes.
The TEMPLATE is a sequence of characters that give the order and type of
values, as follows:
a A string with arbitrary binary data, will be null padded.
A A text (ASCII) string, will be space padded.
Z A null terminated (ASCIZ) string, will be null padded.
b A bit string (ascending bit order inside each byte, like vec()).
B A bit string (descending bit order inside each byte).
h A hex string (low nybble first).
H A hex string (high nybble first).
c A signed char value.
C An unsigned char value. Only does bytes. See U for Unicode.
s A signed short value.
S An unsigned short value.
(This 'short' is _exactly_ 16 bits, which may differ from
what a local C compiler calls 'short'. If you want
native-length shorts, use the '!' suffix.)
i A signed integer value.
I An unsigned integer value.
(This 'integer' is _at_least_ 32 bits wide. Its exact
size depends on what a local C compiler calls 'int',
and may even be larger than the 'long' described in
the next item.)
l A signed long value.
L An unsigned long value.
(This 'long' is _exactly_ 32 bits, which may differ from
what a local C compiler calls 'long'. If you want
native-length longs, use the '!' suffix.)
n An unsigned short in "network" (big-endian) order.
N An unsigned long in "network" (big-endian) order.
v An unsigned short in "VAX" (little-endian) order.
V An unsigned long in "VAX" (little-endian) order.
(These 'shorts' and 'longs' are _exactly_ 16 bits and
_exactly_ 32 bits, respectively.)
q A signed quad (64-bit) value.
Q An unsigned quad value.
(Quads are available only if your system supports 64-bit
integer values _and_ if Perl has been compiled to support those.
Causes a fatal error otherwise.)
j A signed integer value (a Perl internal integer, IV).
J An unsigned integer value (a Perl internal unsigned integer, UV).
f A single-precision float in the native format.
d A double-precision float in the native format.
F A floating point value in the native native format
(a Perl internal floating point value, NV).
D A long double-precision float in the native format.
(Long doubles are available only if your system supports long
double values _and_ if Perl has been compiled to support those.
Causes a fatal error otherwise.)
p A pointer to a null-terminated string.
P A pointer to a structure (fixed-length string).
u A uuencoded string.
U A Unicode character number. Encodes to UTF-8 internally
(or UTF-EBCDIC in EBCDIC platforms).
w A BER compressed integer (not an ASN.1 BER, see perlpacktut for
details). Its bytes represent an unsigned integer in base 128,
most significant digit first, with as few digits as possible. Bit
eight (the high bit) is set on each byte except the last.
x A null byte.
X Back up a byte.
@ Null fill to absolute position, counted from the start of
the innermost ()-group.
( Start of a ()-group.
The following rules apply:
* Each letter may optionally be followed by a number giving a repeat
count. With all types except "a", "A", "Z", "b", "B", "h", "H",
"@", "x", "X" and "P" the pack function will gobble up that many
values from the LIST. A "*" for the repeat count means to use how-
ever many items are left, except for "@", "x", "X", where it is
equivalent to 0, and "u", where it is equivalent to 1 (or 45, what
is the same). A numeric repeat count may optionally be enclosed in
brackets, as in "pack 'C[80]', @arr".
One can replace the numeric repeat count by a template enclosed in
brackets; then the packed length of this template in bytes is used
as a count. For example, "x[L]" skips a long (it skips the number
of bytes in a long); the template "$t X[$t] $t" unpack()s twice
what $t unpacks. If the template in brackets contains alignment
commands (such as "x![d]"), its packed length is calculated as if
the start of the template has the maximal possible alignment.
When used with "Z", "*" results in the addition of a trailing null
byte (so the packed result will be one longer than the byte
"length" of the item).
The repeat count for "u" is interpreted as the maximal number of
bytes to encode per line of output, with 0 and 1 replaced by 45.
* The "a", "A", and "Z" types gobble just one value, but pack it as a
string of length count, padding with nulls or spaces as necessary.
When unpacking, "A" strips trailing spaces and nulls, "Z" strips
everything after the first null, and "a" returns data verbatim.
When packing, "a", and "Z" are equivalent.
If the value-to-pack is too long, it is truncated. If too long and
an explicit count is provided, "Z" packs only "$count-1" bytes,
followed by a null byte. Thus "Z" always packs a trailing null
byte under all circumstances.
* Likewise, the "b" and "B" fields pack a string that many bits long.
Each byte of the input field of pack() generates 1 bit of the
result. Each result bit is based on the least-significant bit of
the corresponding input byte, i.e., on "ord($byte)%2". In particu-
lar, bytes "0" and "1" generate bits 0 and 1, as do bytes "\0" and
"\1".
Starting from the beginning of the input string of pack(), each
8-tuple of bytes is converted to 1 byte of output. With format "b"
the first byte of the 8-tuple determines the least-significant bit
of a byte, and with format "B" it determines the most-significant
bit of a byte.
If the length of the input string is not exactly divisible by 8,
the remainder is packed as if the input string were padded by null
bytes at the end. Similarly, during unpack()ing the "extra" bits
are ignored.
If the input string of pack() is longer than needed, extra bytes
are ignored. A "*" for the repeat count of pack() means to use all
the bytes of the input field. On unpack()ing the bits are con-
verted to a string of "0"s and "1"s.
* The "h" and "H" fields pack a string that many nybbles (4-bit
groups, representable as hexadecimal digits, 0-9a-f) long.
Each byte of the input field of pack() generates 4 bits of the
result. For non-alphabetical bytes the result is based on the 4
least-significant bits of the input byte, i.e., on "ord($byte)%16".
In particular, bytes "0" and "1" generate nybbles 0 and 1, as do
bytes "\0" and "\1". For bytes "a".."f" and "A".."F" the result is
compatible with the usual hexadecimal digits, so that "a" and "A"
both generate the nybble "0xa==10". The result for bytes "g".."z"
and "G".."Z" is not well-defined.
Starting from the beginning of the input string of pack(), each
pair of bytes is converted to 1 byte of output. With format "h"
the first byte of the pair determines the least-significant nybble
of the output byte, and with format "H" it determines the most-sig-
nificant nybble.
If the length of the input string is not even, it behaves as if
padded by a null byte at the end. Similarly, during unpack()ing
the "extra" nybbles are ignored.
If the input string of pack() is longer than needed, extra bytes
are ignored. A "*" for the repeat count of pack() means to use all
the bytes of the input field. On unpack()ing the bits are con-
verted to a string of hexadecimal digits.
* The "p" type packs a pointer to a null-terminated string. You are
responsible for ensuring the string is not a temporary value (which
can potentially get deallocated before you get around to using the
packed result). The "P" type packs a pointer to a structure of the
size indicated by the length. A NULL pointer is created if the
corresponding value for "p" or "P" is "undef", similarly for
unpack().
* The "/" template character allows packing and unpacking of strings
where the packed structure contains a byte count followed by the
string itself. You write length-item"/"string-item.
The length-item can be any "pack" template letter, and describes
how the length value is packed. The ones likely to be of most use
are integer-packing ones like "n" (for Java strings), "w" (for
ASN.1 or SNMP) and "N" (for Sun XDR).
For "pack", the string-item must, at present, be "A*", "a*" or
"Z*". For "unpack" the length of the string is obtained from the
length-item, but if you put in the '*' it will be ignored. For all
other codes, "unpack" applies the length value to the next item,
which must not have a repeat count.
unpack 'C/a', "\04Gurusamy"; gives 'Guru'
unpack 'a3/A* A*', '007 Bond J '; gives (' Bond','J')
pack 'n/a* w/a*','hello,','world'; gives "\000\006hello,\005world"
The length-item is not returned explicitly from "unpack".
Adding a count to the length-item letter is unlikely to do anything
useful, unless that letter is "A", "a" or "Z". Packing with a
length-item of "a" or "Z" may introduce "\000" characters, which
Perl does not regard as legal in numeric strings.
* The integer types "s", "S", "l", and "L" may be immediately fol-
lowed by a "!" suffix to signify native shorts or longs--as you can
see from above for example a bare "l" does mean exactly 32 bits,
the native "long" (as seen by the local C compiler) may be larger.
This is an issue mainly in 64-bit platforms. You can see whether
using "!" makes any difference by
print length(pack("s")), " ", length(pack("s!")), "\n";
print length(pack("l")), " ", length(pack("l!")), "\n";
"i!" and "I!" also work but only because of completeness; they are
identical to "i" and "I".
The actual sizes (in bytes) of native shorts, ints, longs, and long
longs on the platform where Perl was built are also available via
Config:
use Config;
print $Config{shortsize}, "\n";
print $Config{intsize}, "\n";
print $Config{longsize}, "\n";
print $Config{longlongsize}, "\n";
(The $Config{longlongsize} will be undefined if your system does
not support long longs.)
* The integer formats "s", "S", "i", "I", "l", "L", "j", and "J" are
inherently non-portable between processors and operating systems
because they obey the native byteorder and endianness. For example
a 4-byte integer 0x12345678 (305419896 decimal) would be ordered
natively (arranged in and handled by the CPU registers) into bytes
as
0x12 0x34 0x56 0x78 # big-endian
0x78 0x56 0x34 0x12 # little-endian
Basically, the Intel and VAX CPUs are little-endian, while every-
body else, for example Motorola m68k/88k, PPC, Sparc, HP PA, Power,
and Cray are big-endian. Alpha and MIPS can be either: Digi-
tal/Compaq used/uses them in little-endian mode; SGI/Cray uses them
in big-endian mode.
The names 'big-endian' and 'little-endian' are comic references to
the classic "Gulliver's Travels" (via the paper "On Holy Wars and a
Plea for Peace" by Danny Cohen, USC/ISI IEN 137, April 1, 1980) and
the egg-eating habits of the Lilliputians.
Some systems may have even weirder byte orders such as
0x56 0x78 0x12 0x34
0x34 0x12 0x78 0x56
You can see your system's preference with
print join(" ", map { sprintf "%#02x", $_ }
unpack("C*",pack("L",0x12345678))), "\n";
The byteorder on the platform where Perl was built is also avail-
able via Config:
use Config;
print $Config{byteorder}, "\n";
Byteorders '1234' and '12345678' are little-endian, '4321' and
'87654321' are big-endian.
If you want portable packed integers use the formats "n", "N", "v",
and "V", their byte endianness and size are known. See also perl-
port.
* Real numbers (floats and doubles) are in the native machine format
only; due to the multiplicity of floating formats around, and the
lack of a standard "network" representation, no facility for inter-
change has been made. This means that packed floating point data
written on one machine may not be readable on another - even if
both use IEEE floating point arithmetic (as the endian-ness of the
memory representation is not part of the IEEE spec). See also
perlport.
Note that Perl uses doubles internally for all numeric calculation,
and converting from double into float and thence back to double
again will lose precision (i.e., "unpack("f", pack("f", $foo)")
will not in general equal $foo).
* If the pattern begins with a "U", the resulting string will be
treated as UTF-8-encoded Unicode. You can force UTF-8 encoding on
in a string with an initial "U0", and the bytes that follow will be
interpreted as Unicode characters. If you don't want this to hap-
pen, you can begin your pattern with "C0" (or anything else) to
force Perl not to UTF-8 encode your string, and then follow this
with a "U*" somewhere in your pattern.
* You must yourself do any alignment or padding by inserting for
example enough 'x'es while packing. There is no way to pack() and
unpack() could know where the bytes are going to or coming from.
Therefore "pack" (and "unpack") handle their output and input as
flat sequences of bytes.
* A ()-group is a sub-TEMPLATE enclosed in parentheses. A group may
take a repeat count, both as postfix, and for unpack() also via the
"/" template character. Within each repetition of a group, posi-
tioning with "@" starts again at 0. Therefore, the result of
pack( '@1A((@2A)@3A)', 'a', 'b', 'c' )
is the string "\0a\0\0bc".
* "x" and "X" accept "!" modifier. In this case they act as align-
ment commands: they jump forward/back to the closest position
aligned at a multiple of "count" bytes. For example, to pack() or
unpack() C's "struct {char c; double d; char cc[2]}" one may need
to use the template "C x![d] d C[2]"; this assumes that doubles
must be aligned on the double's size.
For alignment commands "count" of 0 is equivalent to "count" of 1;
both result in no-ops.
* A comment in a TEMPLATE starts with "#" and goes to the end of
line. White space may be used to separate pack codes from each
other, but a "!" modifier and a repeat count must follow immedi-
ately.
* If TEMPLATE requires more arguments to pack() than actually given,
pack() assumes additional "" arguments. If TEMPLATE requires fewer
arguments to pack() than actually given, extra arguments are
ignored.
Examples:
$foo = pack("CCCC",65,66,67,68);
# foo eq "ABCD"
$foo = pack("C4",65,66,67,68);
# same thing
$foo = pack("U4",0x24b6,0x24b7,0x24b8,0x24b9);
# same thing with Unicode circled letters
$foo = pack("ccxxcc",65,66,67,68);
# foo eq "AB\0\0CD"
# note: the above examples featuring "C" and "c" are true
# only on ASCII and ASCII-derived systems such as ISO Latin 1
# and UTF-8. In EBCDIC the first example would be
# $foo = pack("CCCC",193,194,195,196);
$foo = pack("s2",1,2);
# "\1\0\2\0" on little-endian
# "\0\1\0\2" on big-endian
$foo = pack("a4","abcd","x","y","z");
# "abcd"
$foo = pack("aaaa","abcd","x","y","z");
# "axyz"
$foo = pack("a14","abcdefg");
# "abcdefg\0\0\0\0\0\0\0"
$foo = pack("i9pl", gmtime);
# a real struct tm (on my system anyway)
$utmp_template = "Z8 Z8 Z16 L";
$utmp = pack($utmp_template, @utmp1);
# a struct utmp (BSDish)
@utmp2 = unpack($utmp_template, $utmp);
# "@utmp1" eq "@utmp2"
sub bintodec {
unpack("N", pack("B32", substr("0" x 32 . shift, -32)));
}
$foo = pack('sx2l', 12, 34);
# short 12, two zero bytes padding, long 34
$bar = pack('s@4l', 12, 34);
# short 12, zero fill to position 4, long 34
# $foo eq $bar
The same template may generally also be used in unpack().
package NAMESPACE
package Declares the compilation unit as being in the given namespace. The scope
of the package declaration is from the declaration itself through the end
of the enclosing block, file, or eval (the same as the "my" operator). All
further unqualified dynamic identifiers will be in this namespace. A pack-
age statement affects only dynamic variables--including those you've used
"local" on--but not lexical variables, which are created with "my". Typi-
cally it would be the first declaration in a file to be included by the
"require" or "use" operator. You can switch into a package in more than
one place; it merely influences which symbol table is used by the compiler
for the rest of that block. You can refer to variables and filehandles in
other packages by prefixing the identifier with the package name and a dou-
ble colon: $Package::Variable. If the package name is null, the "main"
package as assumed. That is, $::sail is equivalent to $main::sail (as well
as to $main'sail, still seen in older code).
If NAMESPACE is omitted, then there is no current package, and all identi-
fiers must be fully qualified or lexicals. However, you are strongly
advised not to make use of this feature. Its use can cause unexpected
behaviour, even crashing some versions of Perl. It is deprecated, and will
be removed from a future release.
See "Packages" in perlmod for more information about packages, modules, and
classes. See perlsub for other scoping issues.
pipe READHANDLE,WRITEHANDLE
Opens a pair of connected pipes like the corresponding system call. Note
that if you set up a loop of piped processes, deadlock can occur unless you
are very careful. In addition, note that Perl's pipes use IO buffering, so
you may need to set $| to flush your WRITEHANDLE after each command,
depending on the application.
See IPC::Open2, IPC::Open3, and "Bidirectional Communication" in perlipc
for examples of such things.
On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will be set
for the newly opened file descriptors as determined by the value of $^F.
See "$^F" in perlvar.
pop ARRAY
pop Pops and returns the last value of the array, shortening the array by one
element. Has an effect similar to
$ARRAY[$#ARRAY--]
If there are no elements in the array, returns the undefined value
(although this may happen at other times as well). If ARRAY is omitted,
pops the @ARGV array in the main program, and the @_ array in subroutines,
just like "shift".
pos SCALAR
pos Returns the offset of where the last "m//g" search left off for the vari-
able in question ($_ is used when the variable is not specified). Note
that 0 is a valid match offset. "undef" indicates that the search position
is reset (usually due to match failure, but can also be because no match
has yet been performed on the scalar). "pos" directly accesses the location
used by the regexp engine to store the offset, so assigning to "pos" will
change that offset, and so will also influence the "\G" zero-width asser-
tion in regular expressions. Because a failed "m//gc" match doesn't reset
the offset, the return from "pos" won't change either in this case. See
perlre and perlop.
print FILEHANDLE LIST
print LIST
print Prints a string or a list of strings. Returns true if successful. FILE-
HANDLE may be a scalar variable name, in which case the variable contains
the name of or a reference to the filehandle, thus introducing one level of
indirection. (NOTE: If FILEHANDLE is a variable and the next token is a
term, it may be misinterpreted as an operator unless you interpose a "+" or
put parentheses around the arguments.) If FILEHANDLE is omitted, prints by
default to standard output (or to the last selected output channel--see
"select"). If LIST is also omitted, prints $_ to the currently selected
output channel. To set the default output channel to something other than
STDOUT use the select operation. The current value of $, (if any) is
printed between each LIST item. The current value of "$\" (if any) is
printed after the entire LIST has been printed. Because print takes a
LIST, anything in the LIST is evaluated in list context, and any subroutine
that you call will have one or more of its expressions evaluated in list
context. Also be careful not to follow the print keyword with a left
parenthesis unless you want the corresponding right parenthesis to termi-
nate the arguments to the print--interpose a "+" or put parentheses around
all the arguments.
Note that if you're storing FILEHANDLEs in an array, or if you're using any
other expression more complex than a scalar variable to retrieve it, you
will have to use a block returning the filehandle value instead:
print { $files[$i] } "stuff\n";
print { $OK ? STDOUT : STDERR } "stuff\n";
printf FILEHANDLE FORMAT, LIST
printf FORMAT, LIST
Equivalent to "print FILEHANDLE sprintf(FORMAT, LIST)", except that "$\"
(the output record separator) is not appended. The first argument of the
list will be interpreted as the "printf" format. See "sprintf" for an
explanation of the format argument. If "use locale" is in effect, the char-
acter used for the decimal point in formatted real numbers is affected by
the LC_NUMERIC locale. See perllocale.
Don't fall into the trap of using a "printf" when a simple "print" would
do. The "print" is more efficient and less error prone.
prototype FUNCTION
Returns the prototype of a function as a string (or "undef" if the function
has no prototype). FUNCTION is a reference to, or the name of, the func-
tion whose prototype you want to retrieve.
If FUNCTION is a string starting with "CORE::", the rest is taken as a name
for Perl builtin. If the builtin is not overridable (such as "qw//") or
its arguments cannot be expressed by a prototype (such as "system") returns
"undef" because the builtin does not really behave like a Perl function.
Otherwise, the string describing the equivalent prototype is returned.
push ARRAY,LIST ,
Treats ARRAY as a stack, and pushes the values of LIST onto the end of
ARRAY. The length of ARRAY increases by the length of LIST. Has the same
effect as
for $value (LIST) {
$ARRAY[++$#ARRAY] = $value;
}
but is more efficient. Returns the number of elements in the array follow-
ing the completed "push".
q/STRING/
qq/STRING/
qr/STRING/
qx/STRING/
qw/STRING/
Generalized quotes. See "Regexp Quote-Like Operators" in perlop.
quotemeta EXPR
quotemeta
Returns the value of EXPR with all non-"word" characters backslashed.
(That is, all characters not matching "/[A-Za-z_0-9]/" will be preceded by
a backslash in the returned string, regardless of any locale settings.)
This is the internal function implementing the "\Q" escape in double-quoted
strings.
If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
rand EXPR
rand Returns a random fractional number greater than or equal to 0 and less than
the value of EXPR. (EXPR should be positive.) If EXPR is omitted, the
value 1 is used. Currently EXPR with the value 0 is also special-cased as
1 - this has not been documented before perl 5.8.0 and is subject to change
in future versions of perl. Automatically calls "srand" unless "srand" has
already been called. See also "srand".
Apply "int()" to the value returned by "rand()" if you want random integers
instead of random fractional numbers. For example,
int(rand(10))
returns a random integer between 0 and 9, inclusive.
(Note: If your rand function consistently returns numbers that are too
large or too small, then your version of Perl was probably compiled with
the wrong number of RANDBITS.)
read FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
read FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
Attempts to read LENGTH characters of data into variable SCALAR from the
specified FILEHANDLE. Returns the number of characters actually read, 0 at
end of file, or undef if there was an error (in the latter case $! is also
set). SCALAR will be grown or shrunk so that the last character actually
read is the last character of the scalar after the read.
An OFFSET may be specified to place the read data at some place in the
string other than the beginning. A negative OFFSET specifies placement at
that many characters counting backwards from the end of the string. A pos-
itive OFFSET greater than the length of SCALAR results in the string being
padded to the required size with "\0" bytes before the result of the read
is appended.
The call is actually implemented in terms of either Perl's or system's
fread() call. To get a true read(2) system call, see "sysread".
Note the characters: depending on the status of the filehandle, either
(8-bit) bytes or characters are read. By default all filehandles operate
on bytes, but for example if the filehandle has been opened with the
":utf8" I/O layer (see "open", and the "open" pragma, open), the I/O will
operate on UTF-8 encoded Unicode characters, not bytes. Similarly for the
":encoding" pragma: in that case pretty much any characters can be read.
readdir DIRHANDLE
Returns the next directory entry for a directory opened by "opendir". If
used in list context, returns all the rest of the entries in the directory.
If there are no more entries, returns an undefined value in scalar context
or a null list in list context.
If you're planning to filetest the return values out of a "readdir", you'd
better prepend the directory in question. Otherwise, because we didn't
"chdir" there, it would have been testing the wrong file.
opendir(DIR, $some_dir) || die "can't opendir $some_dir: $!";
@dots = grep { /^\./ && -f "$some_dir/$_" } readdir(DIR);
closedir DIR;
readline EXPR
Reads from the filehandle whose typeglob is contained in EXPR. In scalar
context, each call reads and returns the next line, until end-of-file is
reached, whereupon the subsequent call returns undef. In list context,
reads until end-of-file is reached and returns a list of lines. Note that
the notion of "line" used here is however you may have defined it with $/
or $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR). See "$/" in perlvar.
When $/ is set to "undef", when readline() is in scalar context (i.e. file
slurp mode), and when an empty file is read, it returns '' the first time,
followed by "undef" subsequently.
This is the internal function implementing the "<EXPR>" operator, but you
can use it directly. The "<EXPR>" operator is discussed in more detail in
"I/O Operators" in perlop.
$line = <STDIN>;
$line = readline(*STDIN); # same thing
If readline encounters an operating system error, $! will be set with the
corresponding error message. It can be helpful to check $! when you are
reading from filehandles you don't trust, such as a tty or a socket. The
following example uses the operator form of "readline", and takes the nec-
essary steps to ensure that "readline" was successful.
for (;;) {
undef $!;
unless (defined( $line = <> )) {
die $! if $!;
last; # reached EOF
}
# ...
}
readlink EXPR
readlink
Returns the value of a symbolic link, if symbolic links are implemented.
If not, gives a fatal error. If there is some system error, returns the
undefined value and sets $! (errno). If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
readpipe EXPR
EXPR is executed as a system command. The collected standard output of the
command is returned. In scalar context, it comes back as a single (poten-
tially multi-line) string. In list context, returns a list of lines (how-
ever you've defined lines with $/ or $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR). This is the
internal function implementing the "qx/EXPR/" operator, but you can use it
directly. The "qx/EXPR/" operator is discussed in more detail in "I/O
Operators" in perlop.
recv SOCKET,SCALAR,LENGTH,FLAGS
Receives a message on a socket. Attempts to receive LENGTH characters of
data into variable SCALAR from the specified SOCKET filehandle. SCALAR
will be grown or shrunk to the length actually read. Takes the same flags
as the system call of the same name. Returns the address of the sender if
SOCKET's protocol supports this; returns an empty string otherwise. If
there's an error, returns the undefined value. This call is actually
implemented in terms of recvfrom(2) system call. See "UDP: Message Pass-
ing" in perlipc for examples.
Note the characters: depending on the status of the socket, either (8-bit)
bytes or characters are received. By default all sockets operate on bytes,
but for example if the socket has been changed using binmode() to operate
with the ":utf8" I/O layer (see the "open" pragma, open), the I/O will
operate on UTF-8 encoded Unicode characters, not bytes. Similarly for the
":encoding" pragma: in that case pretty much any characters can be read.
redo LABEL
redo The "redo" command restarts the loop block without evaluating the condi-
tional again. The "continue" block, if any, is not executed. If the LABEL
is omitted, the command refers to the innermost enclosing loop. Programs
that want to lie to themselves about what was just input normally use this
command:
# a simpleminded Pascal comment stripper
# (warning: assumes no { or } in strings)
LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
while (s|({.*}.*){.*}|$1 |) {}
s|{.*}| |;
if (s|{.*| |) {
$front = $_;
while (<STDIN>) {
if (/}/) { # end of comment?
s|^|$front\{|;
redo LINE;
}
}
}
print;
}
"redo" cannot be used to retry a block which returns a value such as "eval
{}", "sub {}" or "do {}", and should not be used to exit a grep() or map()
operation.
Note that a block by itself is semantically identical to a loop that exe-
cutes once. Thus "redo" inside such a block will effectively turn it into
a looping construct.
See also "continue" for an illustration of how "last", "next", and "redo"
work.
ref EXPR
ref Returns a non-empty string if EXPR is a reference, the empty string other-
wise. If EXPR is not specified, $_ will be used. The value returned
depends on the type of thing the reference is a reference to. Builtin
types include:
SCALAR
ARRAY
HASH
CODE
REF
GLOB
LVALUE
If the referenced object has been blessed into a package, then that package
name is returned instead. You can think of "ref" as a "typeof" operator.
if (ref($r) eq "HASH") {
print "r is a reference to a hash.\n";
}
unless (ref($r)) {
print "r is not a reference at all.\n";
}
See also perlref.
rename OLDNAME,NEWNAME
Changes the name of a file; an existing file NEWNAME will be clobbered.
Returns true for success, false otherwise.
Behavior of this function varies wildly depending on your system implemen-
tation. For example, it will usually not work across file system bound-
aries, even though the system mv command sometimes compensates for this.
Other restrictions include whether it works on directories, open files, or
pre-existing files. Check perlport and either the rename(2) manpage or
equivalent system documentation for details.
require VERSION
require EXPR
require Demands a version of Perl specified by VERSION, or demands some semantics
specified by EXPR or by $_ if EXPR is not supplied.
VERSION may be either a numeric argument such as 5.006, which will be com-
pared to $], or a literal of the form v5.6.1, which will be compared to $^V
(aka $PERL_VERSION). A fatal error is produced at run time if VERSION is
greater than the version of the current Perl interpreter. Compare with
"use", which can do a similar check at compile time.
Specifying VERSION as a literal of the form v5.6.1 should generally be
avoided, because it leads to misleading error messages under earlier ver-
sions of Perl that do not support this syntax. The equivalent numeric ver-
sion should be used instead.
require v5.6.1; # run time version check
require 5.6.1; # ditto
require 5.006_001; # ditto; preferred for backwards compatibility
Otherwise, "require" demands that a library file be included if it hasn't
already been included. The file is included via the do-FILE mechanism,
which is essentially just a variety of "eval". Has semantics similar to
the following subroutine:
sub require {
my ($filename) = @_;
if (exists $INC{$filename}) {
return 1 if $INC{$filename};
die "Compilation failed in require";
}
my ($realfilename,$result);
ITER: {
foreach $prefix (@INC) {
$realfilename = "$prefix/$filename";
if (-f $realfilename) {
$INC{$filename} = $realfilename;
$result = do $realfilename;
last ITER;
}
}
die "Can't find $filename in \@INC";
}
if ($@) {
$INC{$filename} = undef;
die $@;
} elsif (!$result) {
delete $INC{$filename};
die "$filename did not return true value";
} else {
return $result;
}
}
Note that the file will not be included twice under the same specified
name.
The file must return true as the last statement to indicate successful exe-
cution of any initialization code, so it's customary to end such a file
with "1;" unless you're sure it'll return true otherwise. But it's better
just to put the "1;", in case you add more statements.
If EXPR is a bareword, the require assumes a ".pm" extension and replaces
"::" with "/" in the filename for you, to make it easy to load standard
modules. This form of loading of modules does not risk altering your
namespace.
In other words, if you try this:
require Foo::Bar; # a splendid bareword
The require function will actually look for the "Foo/Bar.pm" file in the
directories specified in the @INC array.
But if you try this:
$class = 'Foo::Bar';
require $class; # $class is not a bareword
#or
require "Foo::Bar"; # not a bareword because of the ""
The require function will look for the "Foo::Bar" file in the @INC array
and will complain about not finding "Foo::Bar" there. In this case you can
do:
eval "require $class";
Now that you understand how "require" looks for files in the case of a
bareword argument, there is a little extra functionality going on behind
the scenes. Before "require" looks for a ".pm" extension, it will first
look for a filename with a ".pmc" extension. A file with this extension is
assumed to be Perl bytecode generated by B::Bytecode. If this file is
found, and its modification time is newer than a coinciding ".pm" non-com-
piled file, it will be loaded in place of that non-compiled file ending in
a ".pm" extension.
You can also insert hooks into the import facility, by putting directly
Perl code into the @INC array. There are three forms of hooks: subroutine
references, array references and blessed objects.
Subroutine references are the simplest case. When the inclusion system
walks through @INC and encounters a subroutine, this subroutine gets called
with two parameters, the first being a reference to itself, and the second
the name of the file to be included (e.g. "Foo/Bar.pm"). The subroutine
should return "undef" or a filehandle, from which the file to include will
be read. If "undef" is returned, "require" will look at the remaining ele-
ments of @INC.
If the hook is an array reference, its first element must be a subroutine
reference. This subroutine is called as above, but the first parameter is
the array reference. This enables to pass indirectly some arguments to the
subroutine.
In other words, you can write:
push @INC, \&my_sub;
sub my_sub {
my ($coderef, $filename) = @_; # $coderef is \&my_sub
...
}
or:
push @INC, [ \&my_sub, $x, $y, ... ];
sub my_sub {
my ($arrayref, $filename) = @_;
# Retrieve $x, $y, ...
my @parameters = @$arrayref[1..$#$arrayref];
...
}
If the hook is an object, it must provide an INC method that will be called
as above, the first parameter being the object itself. (Note that you must
fully qualify the sub's name, as it is always forced into package "main".)
Here is a typical code layout:
# In Foo.pm
package Foo;
sub new { ... }
sub Foo::INC {
my ($self, $filename) = @_;
...
}
# In the main program
push @INC, new Foo(...);
Note that these hooks are also permitted to set the %INC entry correspond-
ing to the files they have loaded. See "%INC" in perlvar.
For a yet-more-powerful import facility, see "use" and perlmod.
reset EXPR
reset Generally used in a "continue" block at the end of a loop to clear vari-
ables and reset "??" searches so that they work again. The expression is
interpreted as a list of single characters (hyphens allowed for ranges).
All variables and arrays beginning with one of those letters are reset to
their pristine state. If the expression is omitted, one-match searches
("?pattern?") are reset to match again. Resets only variables or searches
in the current package. Always returns 1. Examples:
reset 'X'; # reset all X variables
reset 'a-z'; # reset lower case variables
reset; # just reset ?one-time? searches
Resetting "A-Z" is not recommended because you'll wipe out your @ARGV and
@INC arrays and your %ENV hash. Resets only package variables--lexical
variables are unaffected, but they clean themselves up on scope exit any-
way, so you'll probably want to use them instead. See "my".
return EXPR
return Returns from a subroutine, "eval", or "do FILE" with the value given in
EXPR. Evaluation of EXPR may be in list, scalar, or void context, depend-
ing on how the return value will be used, and the context may vary from one
execution to the next (see "wantarray"). If no EXPR is given, returns an
empty list in list context, the undefined value in scalar context, and (of
course) nothing at all in a void context.
(Note that in the absence of an explicit "return", a subroutine, eval, or
do FILE will automatically return the value of the last expression evalu-
ated.)
reverse LIST
In list context, returns a list value consisting of the elements of LIST in
the opposite order. In scalar context, concatenates the elements of LIST
and returns a string value with all characters in the opposite order.
print reverse <>; # line tac, last line first
undef $/; # for efficiency of <>
print scalar reverse <>; # character tac, last line tsrif
Used without arguments in scalar context, reverse() reverses $_.
This operator is also handy for inverting a hash, although there are some
caveats. If a value is duplicated in the original hash, only one of those
can be represented as a key in the inverted hash. Also, this has to unwind
one hash and build a whole new one, which may take some time on a large
hash, such as from a DBM file.
%by_name = reverse %by_address; # Invert the hash
rewinddir DIRHANDLE
Sets the current position to the beginning of the directory for the "read-
dir" routine on DIRHANDLE.
rindex STR,SUBSTR,POSITION
rindex STR,SUBSTR
Works just like index() except that it returns the position of the last
occurrence of SUBSTR in STR. If POSITION is specified, returns the last
occurrence beginning at or before that position.
rmdir FILENAME
rmdir Deletes the directory specified by FILENAME if that directory is empty. If
it succeeds it returns true, otherwise it returns false and sets $!
(errno). If FILENAME is omitted, uses $_.
s/// The substitution operator. See perlop.
scalar EXPR
Forces EXPR to be interpreted in scalar context and returns the value of
EXPR.
@counts = ( scalar @a, scalar @b, scalar @c );
There is no equivalent operator to force an expression to be interpolated
in list context because in practice, this is never needed. If you really
wanted to do so, however, you could use the construction "@{[ (some expres-
sion) ]}", but usually a simple "(some expression)" suffices.
Because "scalar" is unary operator, if you accidentally use for EXPR a
parenthesized list, this behaves as a scalar comma expression, evaluating
all but the last element in void context and returning the final element
evaluated in scalar context. This is seldom what you want.
The following single statement:
print uc(scalar(&foo,$bar)),$baz;
is the moral equivalent of these two:
&foo;
print(uc($bar),$baz);
See perlop for more details on unary operators and the comma operator.
seek FILEHANDLE,POSITION,WHENCE
Sets FILEHANDLE's position, just like the "fseek" call of "stdio". FILE-
HANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the filehandle.
The values for WHENCE are 0 to set the new position in bytes to POSITION, 1
to set it to the current position plus POSITION, and 2 to set it to EOF
plus POSITION (typically negative). For WHENCE you may use the constants
"SEEK_SET", "SEEK_CUR", and "SEEK_END" (start of the file, current posi-
tion, end of the file) from the Fcntl module. Returns 1 upon success, 0
otherwise.
Note the in bytes: even if the filehandle has been set to operate on char-
acters (for example by using the ":utf8" open layer), tell() will return
byte offsets, not character offsets (because implementing that would render
seek() and tell() rather slow).
If you want to position file for "sysread" or "syswrite", don't use
"seek"--buffering makes its effect on the file's system position unpre-
dictable and non-portable. Use "sysseek" instead.
Due to the rules and rigors of ANSI C, on some systems you have to do a
seek whenever you switch between reading and writing. Amongst other
things, this may have the effect of calling stdio's clearerr(3). A WHENCE
of 1 ("SEEK_CUR") is useful for not moving the file position:
seek(TEST,0,1);
This is also useful for applications emulating "tail -f". Once you hit EOF
on your read, and then sleep for a while, you might have to stick in a
seek() to reset things. The "seek" doesn't change the current position,
but it does clear the end-of-file condition on the handle, so that the next
"<FILE>" makes Perl try again to read something. We hope.
If that doesn't work (some IO implementations are particularly cantanker-
ous), then you may need something more like this:
for (;;) {
for ($curpos = tell(FILE); $_ = <FILE>;
$curpos = tell(FILE)) {
# search for some stuff and put it into files
}
sleep($for_a_while);
seek(FILE, $curpos, 0);
}
seekdir DIRHANDLE,POS
Sets the current position for the "readdir" routine on DIRHANDLE. POS must
be a value returned by "telldir". "seekdir" also has the same caveats
about possible directory compaction as the corresponding system library
routine.
select FILEHANDLE
select Returns the currently selected filehandle. Sets the current default file-
handle for output, if FILEHANDLE is supplied. This has two effects: first,
a "write" or a "print" without a filehandle will default to this FILEHAN-
DLE. Second, references to variables related to output will refer to this
output channel. For example, if you have to set the top of form format for
more than one output channel, you might do the following:
select(REPORT1);
$^ = 'report1_top';
select(REPORT2);
$^ = 'report2_top';
FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the actual
filehandle. Thus:
$oldfh = select(STDERR); $| = 1; select($oldfh);
Some programmers may prefer to think of filehandles as objects with meth-
ods, preferring to write the last example as:
use IO::Handle;
STDERR->autoflush(1);
select RBITS,WBITS,EBITS,TIMEOUT
This calls the select(2) system call with the bit masks specified, which
can be constructed using "fileno" and "vec", along these lines:
$rin = $win = $ein = '';
vec($rin,fileno(STDIN),1) = 1;
vec($win,fileno(STDOUT),1) = 1;
$ein = $rin | $win;
If you want to select on many filehandles you might wish to write a subrou-
tine:
sub fhbits {
my(@fhlist) = split(' ',$_[0]);
my($bits);
for (@fhlist) {
vec($bits,fileno($_),1) = 1;
}
$bits;
}
$rin = fhbits('STDIN TTY SOCK');
The usual idiom is:
($nfound,$timeleft) =
select($rout=$rin, $wout=$win, $eout=$ein, $timeout);
or to block until something becomes ready just do this
$nfound = select($rout=$rin, $wout=$win, $eout=$ein, undef);
Most systems do not bother to return anything useful in $timeleft, so call-
ing select() in scalar context just returns $nfound.
Any of the bit masks can also be undef. The timeout, if specified, is in
seconds, which may be fractional. Note: not all implementations are capa-
ble of returning the $timeleft. If not, they always return $timeleft equal
to the supplied $timeout.
You can effect a sleep of 250 milliseconds this way:
select(undef, undef, undef, 0.25);
Note that whether "select" gets restarted after signals (say, SIGALRM) is
implementation-dependent. See also perlport for notes on the portability
of "select".
On error, "select" behaves like the select(2) system call : it returns -1
and sets $!.
Note: on some Unixes, the select(2) system call may report a socket file
descriptor as "ready for reading", when actually no data is available, thus
a subsequent read blocks. It can be avoided using always the O_NONBLOCK
flag on the socket. See select(2) and fcntl(2) for further details.
WARNING: One should not attempt to mix buffered I/O (like "read" or <FH>)
with "select", except as permitted by POSIX, and even then only on POSIX
systems. You have to use "sysread" instead.
semctl ID,SEMNUM,CMD,ARG
Calls the System V IPC function "semctl". You'll probably have to say
use IPC::SysV;
first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is IPC_STAT or
GETALL, then ARG must be a variable that will hold the returned semid_ds
structure or semaphore value array. Returns like "ioctl": the undefined
value for error, ""0 but true"" for zero, or the actual return value other-
wise. The ARG must consist of a vector of native short integers, which may
be created with "pack("s!",(0)x$nsem)". See also "SysV IPC" in perlipc,
"IPC::SysV", "IPC::Semaphore" documentation.
semget KEY,NSEMS,FLAGS
Calls the System V IPC function semget. Returns the semaphore id, or the
undefined value if there is an error. See also "SysV IPC" in perlipc,
"IPC::SysV", "IPC::SysV::Semaphore" documentation.
semop KEY,OPSTRING
Calls the System V IPC function semop to perform semaphore operations such
as signalling and waiting. OPSTRING must be a packed array of semop struc-
tures. Each semop structure can be generated with "pack("s!3", $semnum,
$semop, $semflag)". The length of OPSTRING implies the number of semaphore
operations. Returns true if successful, or false if there is an error. As
an example, the following code waits on semaphore $semnum of semaphore id
$semid:
$semop = pack("s!3", $semnum, -1, 0);
die "Semaphore trouble: $!\n" unless semop($semid, $semop);
To signal the semaphore, replace "-1" with 1. See also "SysV IPC" in per-
lipc, "IPC::SysV", and "IPC::SysV::Semaphore" documentation.
send SOCKET,MSG,FLAGS,TO
send SOCKET,MSG,FLAGS
Sends a message on a socket. Attempts to send the scalar MSG to the SOCKET
filehandle. Takes the same flags as the system call of the same name. On
unconnected sockets you must specify a destination to send TO, in which
case it does a C "sendto". Returns the number of characters sent, or the
undefined value if there is an error. The C system call sendmsg(2) is cur-
rently unimplemented. See "UDP: Message Passing" in perlipc for examples.
Note the characters: depending on the status of the socket, either (8-bit)
bytes or characters are sent. By default all sockets operate on bytes, but
for example if the socket has been changed using binmode() to operate with
the ":utf8" I/O layer (see "open", or the "open" pragma, open), the I/O
will operate on UTF-8 encoded Unicode characters, not bytes. Similarly for
the ":encoding" pragma: in that case pretty much any characters can be
sent.
setpgrp PID,PGRP
Sets the current process group for the specified PID, 0 for the current
process. Will produce a fatal error if used on a machine that doesn't
implement POSIX setpgid(2) or BSD setpgrp(2). If the arguments are omit-
ted, it defaults to "0,0". Note that the BSD 4.2 version of "setpgrp" does
not accept any arguments, so only "setpgrp(0,0)" is portable. See also
"POSIX::setsid()".
setpriority WHICH,WHO,PRIORITY
Sets the current priority for a process, a process group, or a user. (See
setpriority(2).) Will produce a fatal error if used on a machine that
doesn't implement setpriority(2).
setsockopt SOCKET,LEVEL,OPTNAME,OPTVAL
Sets the socket option requested. Returns undefined if there is an error.
Use integer constants provided by the "Socket" module for LEVEL and OPNAME.
Values for LEVEL can also be obtained from getprotobyname. OPTVAL might
either be a packed string or an integer. An integer OPTVAL is shorthand
for pack("i", OPTVAL).
An example disabling the Nagle's algorithm for a socket:
use Socket qw(IPPROTO_TCP TCP_NODELAY);
setsockopt($socket, IPPROTO_TCP, TCP_NODELAY, 1);
shift ARRAY
shift Shifts the first value of the array off and returns it, shortening the
array by 1 and moving everything down. If there are no elements in the
array, returns the undefined value. If ARRAY is omitted, shifts the @_
array within the lexical scope of subroutines and formats, and the @ARGV
array at file scopes or within the lexical scopes established by the "eval
''", "BEGIN {}", "INIT {}", "CHECK {}", and "END {}" constructs.
See also "unshift", "push", and "pop". "shift" and "unshift" do the same
thing to the left end of an array that "pop" and "push" do to the right
end.
shmctl ID,CMD,ARG
Calls the System V IPC function shmctl. You'll probably have to say
use IPC::SysV;
first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is "IPC_STAT", then
ARG must be a variable that will hold the returned "shmid_ds" structure.
Returns like ioctl: the undefined value for error, "0 but true" for zero,
or the actual return value otherwise. See also "SysV IPC" in perlipc and
"IPC::SysV" documentation.
shmget KEY,SIZE,FLAGS
Calls the System V IPC function shmget. Returns the shared memory segment
id, or the undefined value if there is an error. See also "SysV IPC" in
perlipc and "IPC::SysV" documentation.
shmread ID,VAR,POS,SIZE
shmwrite ID,STRING,POS,SIZE
Reads or writes the System V shared memory segment ID starting at position
POS for size SIZE by attaching to it, copying in/out, and detaching from
it. When reading, VAR must be a variable that will hold the data read.
When writing, if STRING is too long, only SIZE bytes are used; if STRING is
too short, nulls are written to fill out SIZE bytes. Return true if suc-
cessful, or false if there is an error. shmread() taints the variable. See
also "SysV IPC" in perlipc, "IPC::SysV" documentation, and the "IPC::Share-
able" module from CPAN.
shutdown SOCKET,HOW
Shuts down a socket connection in the manner indicated by HOW, which has
the same interpretation as in the system call of the same name.
shutdown(SOCKET, 0); # I/we have stopped reading data
shutdown(SOCKET, 1); # I/we have stopped writing data
shutdown(SOCKET, 2); # I/we have stopped using this socket
This is useful with sockets when you want to tell the other side you're
done writing but not done reading, or vice versa. It's also a more insis-
tent form of close because it also disables the file descriptor in any
forked copies in other processes.
sin EXPR
sin Returns the sine of EXPR (expressed in radians). If EXPR is omitted,
returns sine of $_.
For the inverse sine operation, you may use the "Math::Trig::asin" func-
tion, or use this relation:
sub asin { atan2($_[0], sqrt(1 - $_[0] * $_[0])) }
sleep EXPR
sleep Causes the script to sleep for EXPR seconds, or forever if no EXPR. May be
interrupted if the process receives a signal such as "SIGALRM". Returns
the number of seconds actually slept. You probably cannot mix "alarm" and
"sleep" calls, because "sleep" is often implemented using "alarm".
On some older systems, it may sleep up to a full second less than what you
requested, depending on how it counts seconds. Most modern systems always
sleep the full amount. They may appear to sleep longer than that, however,
because your process might not be scheduled right away in a busy multitask-
ing system.
For delays of finer granularity than one second, you may use Perl's
"syscall" interface to access setitimer(2) if your system supports it, or
else see "select" above. The Time::HiRes module (from CPAN, and starting
from Perl 5.8 part of the standard distribution) may also help.
See also the POSIX module's "pause" function.
socket SOCKET,DOMAIN,TYPE,PROTOCOL
Opens a socket of the specified kind and attaches it to filehandle SOCKET.
DOMAIN, TYPE, and PROTOCOL are specified the same as for the system call of
the same name. You should "use Socket" first to get the proper definitions
imported. See the examples in "Sockets: Client/Server Communication" in
perlipc.
On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will be set
for the newly opened file descriptor, as determined by the value of $^F.
See "$^F" in perlvar.
socketpair SOCKET1,SOCKET2,DOMAIN,TYPE,PROTOCOL
Creates an unnamed pair of sockets in the specified domain, of the speci-
fied type. DOMAIN, TYPE, and PROTOCOL are specified the same as for the
system call of the same name. If unimplemented, yields a fatal error.
Returns true if successful.
On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will be set
for the newly opened file descriptors, as determined by the value of $^F.
See "$^F" in perlvar.
Some systems defined "pipe" in terms of "socketpair", in which a call to
"pipe(Rdr, Wtr)" is essentially:
use Socket;
socketpair(Rdr, Wtr, AF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, PF_UNSPEC);
shutdown(Rdr, 1); # no more writing for reader
shutdown(Wtr, 0); # no more reading for writer
See perlipc for an example of socketpair use. Perl 5.8 and later will emu-
late socketpair using IP sockets to localhost if your system implements
sockets but not socketpair.
sort SUBNAME LIST
sort BLOCK LIST
sort LIST
In list context, this sorts the LIST and returns the sorted list value. In
scalar context, the behaviour of "sort()" is undefined.
If SUBNAME or BLOCK is omitted, "sort"s in standard string comparison
order. If SUBNAME is specified, it gives the name of a subroutine that
returns an integer less than, equal to, or greater than 0, depending on how
the elements of the list are to be ordered. (The "<=>" and "cmp" operators
are extremely useful in such routines.) SUBNAME may be a scalar variable
name (unsubscripted), in which case the value provides the name of (or a
reference to) the actual subroutine to use. In place of a SUBNAME, you can
provide a BLOCK as an anonymous, in-line sort subroutine.
If the subroutine's prototype is "($$)", the elements to be compared are
passed by reference in @_, as for a normal subroutine. This is slower than
unprototyped subroutines, where the elements to be compared are passed into
the subroutine as the package global variables $a and $b (see example
below). Note that in the latter case, it is usually counter-productive to
declare $a and $b as lexicals.
In either case, the subroutine may not be recursive. The values to be com-
pared are always passed by reference and should not be modified.
You also cannot exit out of the sort block or subroutine using any of the
loop control operators described in perlsyn or with "goto".
When "use locale" is in effect, "sort LIST" sorts LIST according to the
current collation locale. See perllocale.
sort() returns aliases into the original list, much as a for loop's index
variable aliases the list elements. That is, modifying an element of a
list returned by sort() (for example, in a "foreach", "map" or "grep")
actually modifies the element in the original list. This is usually some-
thing to be avoided when writing clear code.
Perl 5.6 and earlier used a quicksort algorithm to implement sort. That
algorithm was not stable, and could go quadratic. (A stable sort preserves
the input order of elements that compare equal. Although quicksort's run
time is O(NlogN) when averaged over all arrays of length N, the time can be
O(N**2), quadratic behavior, for some inputs.) In 5.7, the quicksort
implementation was replaced with a stable mergesort algorithm whose worst-
case behavior is O(NlogN). But benchmarks indicated that for some inputs,
on some platforms, the original quicksort was faster. 5.8 has a sort
pragma for limited control of the sort. Its rather blunt control of the
underlying algorithm may not persist into future Perls, but the ability to
characterize the input or output in implementation independent ways quite
probably will. See sort.
Examples:
# sort lexically
@articles = sort @files;
# same thing, but with explicit sort routine
@articles = sort {$a cmp $b} @files;
# now case-insensitively
@articles = sort {uc($a) cmp uc($b)} @files;
# same thing in reversed order
@articles = sort {$b cmp $a} @files;
# sort numerically ascending
@articles = sort {$a <=> $b} @files;
# sort numerically descending
@articles = sort {$b <=> $a} @files;
# this sorts the %age hash by value instead of key
# using an in-line function
@eldest = sort { $age{$b} <=> $age{$a} } keys %age;
# sort using explicit subroutine name
sub byage {
$age{$a} <=> $age{$b}; # presuming numeric
}
@sortedclass = sort byage @class;
sub backwards { $b cmp $a }
@harry = qw(dog cat x Cain Abel);
@george = qw(gone chased yz Punished Axed);
print sort @harry;
# prints AbelCaincatdogx
print sort backwards @harry;
# prints xdogcatCainAbel
print sort @george, 'to', @harry;
# prints AbelAxedCainPunishedcatchaseddoggonetoxyz
# inefficiently sort by descending numeric compare using
# the first integer after the first = sign, or the
# whole record case-insensitively otherwise
@new = sort {
($b =~ /=(\d+)/)[0] <=> ($a =~ /=(\d+)/)[0]
||
uc($a) cmp uc($b)
} @old;
# same thing, but much more efficiently;
# we'll build auxiliary indices instead
# for speed
@nums = @caps = ();
for (@old) {
push @nums, /=(\d+)/;
push @caps, uc($_);
}
@new = @old[ sort {
$nums[$b] <=> $nums[$a]
||
$caps[$a] cmp $caps[$b]
} 0..$#old
];
# same thing, but without any temps
@new = map { $_->[0] }
sort { $b->[1] <=> $a->[1]
||
$a->[2] cmp $b->[2]
} map { [$_, /=(\d+)/, uc($_)] } @old;
# using a prototype allows you to use any comparison subroutine
# as a sort subroutine (including other package's subroutines)
package other;
sub backwards ($$) { $_[1] cmp $_[0]; } # $a and $b are not set here
package main;
@new = sort other::backwards @old;
# guarantee stability, regardless of algorithm
use sort 'stable';
@new = sort { substr($a, 3, 5) cmp substr($b, 3, 5) } @old;
# force use of mergesort (not portable outside Perl 5.8)
use sort '_mergesort'; # note discouraging _
@new = sort { substr($a, 3, 5) cmp substr($b, 3, 5) } @old;
If you're using strict, you must not declare $a and $b as lexicals. They
are package globals. That means if you're in the "main" package and type
@articles = sort {$b <=> $a} @files;
then $a and $b are $main::a and $main::b (or $::a and $::b), but if you're
in the "FooPack" package, it's the same as typing
@articles = sort {$FooPack::b <=> $FooPack::a} @files;
The comparison function is required to behave. If it returns inconsistent
results (sometimes saying $x[1] is less than $x[2] and sometimes saying the
opposite, for example) the results are not well-defined.
Because "<=>" returns "undef" when either operand is "NaN" (not-a-number),
and because "sort" will trigger a fatal error unless the result of a com-
parison is defined, when sorting with a comparison function like "$a <=>
$b", be careful about lists that might contain a "NaN". The following
example takes advantage of the fact that "NaN != NaN" to eliminate any
"NaN"s from the input.
@result = sort { $a <=> $b } grep { $_ == $_ } @input;
splice ARRAY,OFFSET,LENGTH,LIST
splice ARRAY,OFFSET,LENGTH
splice ARRAY,OFFSET
splice ARRAY
Removes the elements designated by OFFSET and LENGTH from an array, and
replaces them with the elements of LIST, if any. In list context, returns
the elements removed from the array. In scalar context, returns the last
element removed, or "undef" if no elements are removed. The array grows or
shrinks as necessary. If OFFSET is negative then it starts that far from
the end of the array. If LENGTH is omitted, removes everything from OFFSET
onward. If LENGTH is negative, removes the elements from OFFSET onward
except for -LENGTH elements at the end of the array. If both OFFSET and
LENGTH are omitted, removes everything. If OFFSET is past the end of the
array, perl issues a warning, and splices at the end of the array.
The following equivalences hold (assuming "$[ == 0 and $#a >= $i" )
push(@a,$x,$y) splice(@a,@a,0,$x,$y)
pop(@a) splice(@a,-1)
shift(@a) splice(@a,0,1)
unshift(@a,$x,$y) splice(@a,0,0,$x,$y)
$a[$i] = $y splice(@a,$i,1,$y)
Example, assuming array lengths are passed before arrays:
sub aeq { # compare two list values
my(@a) = splice(@_,0,shift);
my(@b) = splice(@_,0,shift);
return 0 unless @a == @b; # same len?
while (@a) {
return 0 if pop(@a) ne pop(@b);
}
return 1;
}
if (&aeq($len,@foo[1..$len],0+@bar,@bar)) { ... }
split /PATTERN/,EXPR,LIMIT
split /PATTERN/,EXPR
split /PATTERN/
split Splits the string EXPR into a list of strings and returns that list. By
default, empty leading fields are preserved, and empty trailing ones are
deleted. (If all fields are empty, they are considered to be trailing.)
In scalar context, returns the number of fields found and splits into the
@_ array. Use of split in scalar context is deprecated, however, because
it clobbers your subroutine arguments.
If EXPR is omitted, splits the $_ string. If PATTERN is also omitted,
splits on whitespace (after skipping any leading whitespace). Anything
matching PATTERN is taken to be a delimiter separating the fields. (Note
that the delimiter may be longer than one character.)
If LIMIT is specified and positive, it represents the maximum number of
fields the EXPR will be split into, though the actual number of fields
returned depends on the number of times PATTERN matches within EXPR. If
LIMIT is unspecified or zero, trailing null fields are stripped (which
potential users of "pop" would do well to remember). If LIMIT is negative,
it is treated as if an arbitrarily large LIMIT had been specified. Note
that splitting an EXPR that evaluates to the empty string always returns
the empty list, regardless of the LIMIT specified.
A pattern matching the null string (not to be confused with a null pattern
"//", which is just one member of the set of patterns matching a null
string) will split the value of EXPR into separate characters at each point
it matches that way. For example:
print join(':', split(/ */, 'hi there'));
produces the output 'h:i:t:h:e:r:e'.
As a special case for "split", using the empty pattern "//" specifically
matches only the null string, and is not be confused with the regular use
of "//" to mean "the last successful pattern match". So, for "split", the
following:
print join(':', split(//, 'hi there'));
produces the output 'h:i: :t:h:e:r:e'.
Empty leading (or trailing) fields are produced when there are positive
width matches at the beginning (or end) of the string; a zero-width match
at the beginning (or end) of the string does not produce an empty field.
For example:
print join(':', split(/(?=\w)/, 'hi there!'));
produces the output 'h:i :t:h:e:r:e!'.
The LIMIT parameter can be used to split a line partially
($login, $passwd, $remainder) = split(/:/, $_, 3);
When assigning to a list, if LIMIT is omitted, or zero, Perl supplies a
LIMIT one larger than the number of variables in the list, to avoid unnec-
essary work. For the list above LIMIT would have been 4 by default. In
time critical applications it behooves you not to split into more fields
than you really need.
If the PATTERN contains parentheses, additional list elements are created
from each matching substring in the delimiter.
split(/([,-])/, "1-10,20", 3);
produces the list value
(1, '-', 10, ',', 20)
If you had the entire header of a normal Unix email message in $header, you
could split it up into fields and their values this way:
$header =~ s/\n\s+/ /g; # fix continuation lines
%hdrs = (UNIX_FROM => split /^(\S*?):\s*/m, $header);
The pattern "/PATTERN/" may be replaced with an expression to specify pat-
terns that vary at runtime. (To do runtime compilation only once, use
"/$variable/o".)
As a special case, specifying a PATTERN of space (' ') will split on white
space just as "split" with no arguments does. Thus, "split(' ')" can be
used to emulate awk's default behavior, whereas "split(/ /)" will give you
as many null initial fields as there are leading spaces. A "split" on
"/\s+/" is like a "split(' ')" except that any leading whitespace produces
a null first field. A "split" with no arguments really does a
"split(' ', $_)" internally.
A PATTERN of "/^/" is treated as if it were "/^/m", since it isn't much use
otherwise.
Example:
open(PASSWD, '/etc/passwd');
while (<PASSWD>) {
chomp;
($login, $passwd, $uid, $gid,
$gcos, $home, $shell) = split(/:/);
#...
}
As with regular pattern matching, any capturing parentheses that are not
matched in a "split()" will be set to "undef" when returned:
@fields = split /(A)|B/, "1A2B3";
# @fields is (1, 'A', 2, undef, 3)
sprintf FORMAT, LIST
Returns a string formatted by the usual "printf" conventions of the C
library function "sprintf". See below for more details and see sprintf(3)
or printf(3) on your system for an explanation of the general principles.
For example:
# Format number with up to 8 leading zeroes
$result = sprintf("%08d", $number);
# Round number to 3 digits after decimal point
$rounded = sprintf("%.3f", $number);
Perl does its own "sprintf" formatting--it emulates the C function
"sprintf", but it doesn't use it (except for floating-point numbers, and
even then only the standard modifiers are allowed). As a result, any non-
standard extensions in your local "sprintf" are not available from Perl.
Unlike "printf", "sprintf" does not do what you probably mean when you pass
it an array as your first argument. The array is given scalar context, and
instead of using the 0th element of the array as the format, Perl will use
the count of elements in the array as the format, which is almost never
useful.
Perl's "sprintf" permits the following universally-known conversions:
%% a percent sign
%c a character with the given number
%s a string
%d a signed integer, in decimal
%u an unsigned integer, in decimal
%o an unsigned integer, in octal
%x an unsigned integer, in hexadecimal
%e a floating-point number, in scientific notation
%f a floating-point number, in fixed decimal notation
%g a floating-point number, in %e or %f notation
In addition, Perl permits the following widely-supported conversions:
%X like %x, but using upper-case letters
%E like %e, but using an upper-case "E"
%G like %g, but with an upper-case "E" (if applicable)
%b an unsigned integer, in binary
%p a pointer (outputs the Perl value's address in hexadecimal)
%n special: *stores* the number of characters output so far
into the next variable in the parameter list
Finally, for backward (and we do mean "backward") compatibility, Perl per-
mits these unnecessary but widely-supported conversions:
%i a synonym for %d
%D a synonym for %ld
%U a synonym for %lu
%O a synonym for %lo
%F a synonym for %f
Note that the number of exponent digits in the scientific notation produced
by %e, %E, %g and %G for numbers with the modulus of the exponent less than
100 is system-dependent: it may be three or less (zero-padded as neces-
sary). In other words, 1.23 times ten to the 99th may be either "1.23e99"
or "1.23e099".
Between the "%" and the format letter, you may specify a number of addi-
tional attributes controlling the interpretation of the format. In order,
these are:
format parameter index
An explicit format parameter index, such as "2$". By default sprintf
will format the next unused argument in the list, but this allows you
to take the arguments out of order, e.g.:
printf '%2$d %1$d', 12, 34; # prints "34 12"
printf '%3$d %d %1$d', 1, 2, 3; # prints "3 1 1"
flags
one or more of:
space prefix positive number with a space
+ prefix positive number with a plus sign
- left-justify within the field
0 use zeros, not spaces, to right-justify
# prefix non-zero octal with "0", non-zero hex with "0x",
non-zero binary with "0b"
For example:
printf '<% d>', 12; # prints "< 12>"
printf '<%+d>', 12; # prints "<+12>"
printf '<%6s>', 12; # prints "< 12>"
printf '<%-6s>', 12; # prints "<12 >"
printf '<%06s>', 12; # prints "<000012>"
printf '<%#x>', 12; # prints "<0xc>"
vector flag
This flag tells perl to interpret the supplied string as a vector of
integers, one for each character in the string. Perl applies the format
to each integer in turn, then joins the resulting strings with a sepa-
rator (a dot "." by default). This can be useful for displaying ordinal
values of characters in arbitrary strings:
printf "%vd", "AB\x{100}"; # prints "65.66.256"
printf "version is v%vd\n", $^V; # Perl's version
Put an asterisk "*" before the "v" to override the string to use to
separate the numbers:
printf "address is %*vX\n", ":", $addr; # IPv6 address
printf "bits are %0*v8b\n", " ", $bits; # random bitstring
You can also explicitly specify the argument number to use for the join
string using e.g. "*2$v":
printf '%*4$vX %*4$vX %*4$vX', @addr[1..3], ":"; # 3 IPv6 addresses
(minimum) width
Arguments are usually formatted to be only as wide as required to dis-
play the given value. You can override the width by putting a number
here, or get the width from the next argument (with "*") or from a
specified argument (with e.g. "*2$"):
printf '<%s>', "a"; # prints "<a>"
printf '<%6s>', "a"; # prints "< a>"
printf '<%*s>', 6, "a"; # prints "< a>"
printf '<%*2$s>', "a", 6; # prints "< a>"
printf '<%2s>', "long"; # prints "<long>" (does not truncate)
If a field width obtained through "*" is negative, it has the same
effect as the "-" flag: left-justification.
precision, or maximum width
You can specify a precision (for numeric conversions) or a maximum
width (for string conversions) by specifying a "." followed by a num-
ber. For floating point formats, with the exception of 'g' and 'G',
this specifies the number of decimal places to show (the default being
6), e.g.:
# these examples are subject to system-specific variation
printf '<%f>', 1; # prints "<1.000000>"
printf '<%.1f>', 1; # prints "<1.0>"
printf '<%.0f>', 1; # prints "<1>"
printf '<%e>', 10; # prints "<1.000000e+01>"
printf '<%.1e>', 10; # prints "<1.0e+01>"
For 'g' and 'G', this specifies the maximum number of digits to show,
including prior to the decimal point as well as after it, e.g.:
# these examples are subject to system-specific variation
printf '<%g>', 1; # prints "<1>"
printf '<%.10g>', 1; # prints "<1>"
printf '<%g>', 100; # prints "<100>"
printf '<%.1g>', 100; # prints "<1e+02>"
printf '<%.2g>', 100.01; # prints "<1e+02>"
printf '<%.5g>', 100.01; # prints "<100.01>"
printf '<%.4g>', 100.01; # prints "<100>"
For integer conversions, specifying a precision implies that the output
of the number itself should be zero-padded to this width:
printf '<%.6x>', 1; # prints "<000001>"
printf '<%#.6x>', 1; # prints "<0x000001>"
printf '<%-10.6x>', 1; # prints "<000001 >"
For string conversions, specifying a precision truncates the string to
fit in the specified width:
printf '<%.5s>', "truncated"; # prints "<trunc>"
printf '<%10.5s>', "truncated"; # prints "< trunc>"
You can also get the precision from the next argument using ".*":
printf '<%.6x>', 1; # prints "<000001>"
printf '<%.*x>', 6, 1; # prints "<000001>"
You cannot currently get the precision from a specified number, but it
is intended that this will be possible in the future using e.g. ".*2$":
printf '<%.*2$x>', 1, 6; # INVALID, but in future will print "<000001>"
size
For numeric conversions, you can specify the size to interpret the num-
ber as using "l", "h", "V", "q", "L", or "ll". For integer conversions
("d u o x X b i D U O"), numbers are usually assumed to be whatever the
default integer size is on your platform (usually 32 or 64 bits), but
you can override this to use instead one of the standard C types, as
supported by the compiler used to build Perl:
l interpret integer as C type "long" or "unsigned long"
h interpret integer as C type "short" or "unsigned short"
q, L or ll interpret integer as C type "long long", "unsigned long long".
or "quads" (typically 64-bit integers)
The last will produce errors if Perl does not understand "quads" in
your installation. (This requires that either the platform natively
supports quads or Perl was specifically compiled to support quads.) You
can find out whether your Perl supports quads via Config:
use Config;
($Config{use64bitint} eq 'define' || $Config{longsize} >= 8) &&
print "quads\n";
For floating point conversions ("e f g E F G"), numbers are usually
assumed to be the default floating point size on your platform (double
or long double), but you can force 'long double' with "q", "L", or "ll"
if your platform supports them. You can find out whether your Perl sup-
ports long doubles via Config:
use Config;
$Config{d_longdbl} eq 'define' && print "long doubles\n";
You can find out whether Perl considers 'long double' to be the default
floating point size to use on your platform via Config:
use Config;
($Config{uselongdouble} eq 'define') &&
print "long doubles by default\n";
It can also be the case that long doubles and doubles are the same
thing:
use Config;
($Config{doublesize} == $Config{longdblsize}) &&
print "doubles are long doubles\n";
The size specifier "V" has no effect for Perl code, but it is supported
for compatibility with XS code; it means 'use the standard size for a
Perl integer (or floating-point number)', which is already the default
for Perl code.
order of arguments
Normally, sprintf takes the next unused argument as the value to format
for each format specification. If the format specification uses "*" to
require additional arguments, these are consumed from the argument list
in the order in which they appear in the format specification before
the value to format. Where an argument is specified using an explicit
index, this does not affect the normal order for the arguments (even
when the explicitly specified index would have been the next argument
in any case).
So:
printf '<%*.*s>', $a, $b, $c;
would use $a for the width, $b for the precision and $c as the value to
format, while:
print '<%*1$.*s>', $a, $b;
would use $a for the width and the precision, and $b as the value to
format.
Here are some more examples - beware that when using an explicit index,
the "$" may need to be escaped:
printf "%2\$d %d\n", 12, 34; # will print "34 12\n"
printf "%2\$d %d %d\n", 12, 34; # will print "34 12 34\n"
printf "%3\$d %d %d\n", 12, 34, 56; # will print "56 12 34\n"
printf "%2\$*3\$d %d\n", 12, 34, 3; # will print " 34 12\n"
If "use locale" is in effect, the character used for the decimal point in
formatted real numbers is affected by the LC_NUMERIC locale. See perllo-
cale.
sqrt EXPR
sqrt Return the square root of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, returns square root of
$_. Only works on non-negative operands, unless you've loaded the standard
Math::Complex module.
use Math::Complex;
print sqrt(-2); # prints 1.4142135623731i
srand EXPR
srand Sets the random number seed for the "rand" operator.
The point of the function is to "seed" the "rand" function so that "rand"
can produce a different sequence each time you run your program.
If srand() is not called explicitly, it is called implicitly at the first
use of the "rand" operator. However, this was not the case in versions of
Perl before 5.004, so if your script will run under older Perl versions, it
should call "srand".
Most programs won't even call srand() at all, except those that need a
cryptographically-strong starting point rather than the generally accept-
able default, which is based on time of day, process ID, and memory alloca-
tion, or the /dev/urandom device, if available.
You can call srand($seed) with the same $seed to reproduce the same
sequence from rand(), but this is usually reserved for generating pre-
dictable results for testing or debugging. Otherwise, don't call srand()
more than once in your program.
Do not call srand() (i.e. without an argument) more than once in a script.
The internal state of the random number generator should contain more
entropy than can be provided by any seed, so calling srand() again actually
loses randomness.
Most implementations of "srand" take an integer and will silently truncate
decimal numbers. This means "srand(42)" will usually produce the same
results as "srand(42.1)". To be safe, always pass "srand" an integer.
In versions of Perl prior to 5.004 the default seed was just the current
"time". This isn't a particularly good seed, so many old programs supply
their own seed value (often "time ^ $$" or "time ^ ($$ + ($$ << 15))"), but
that isn't necessary any more.
For cryptographic purposes, however, you need something much more random
than the default seed. Checksumming the compressed output of one or more
rapidly changing operating system status programs is the usual method. For
example:
srand (time ^ $$ ^ unpack "%L*", 'ps axww | gzip');
If you're particularly concerned with this, see the "Math::TrulyRandom"
module in CPAN.
Frequently called programs (like CGI scripts) that simply use
time ^ $$
for a seed can fall prey to the mathematical property that
a^b == (a+1)^(b+1)
one-third of the time. So don't do that.
stat FILEHANDLE
stat EXPR
stat Returns a 13-element list giving the status info for a file, either the
file opened via FILEHANDLE, or named by EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, it stats
$_. Returns a null list if the stat fails. Typically used as follows:
($dev,$ino,$mode,$nlink,$uid,$gid,$rdev,$size,
$atime,$mtime,$ctime,$blksize,$blocks)
= stat($filename);
Not all fields are supported on all filesystem types. Here are the mean-
ings of the fields:
0 dev device number of filesystem
1 ino inode number
2 mode file mode (type and permissions)
3 nlink number of (hard) links to the file
4 uid numeric user ID of file's owner
5 gid numeric group ID of file's owner
6 rdev the device identifier (special files only)
7 size total size of file, in bytes
8 atime last access time in seconds since the epoch
9 mtime last modify time in seconds since the epoch
10 ctime inode change time in seconds since the epoch (*)
11 blksize preferred block size for file system I/O
12 blocks actual number of blocks allocated
(The epoch was at 00:00 January 1, 1970 GMT.)
(*) Not all fields are supported on all filesystem types. Notably, the
ctime field is non-portable. In particular, you cannot expect it to be a
"creation time", see "Files and Filesystems" in perlport for details.
If "stat" is passed the special filehandle consisting of an underline, no
stat is done, but the current contents of the stat structure from the last
"stat", "lstat", or filetest are returned. Example:
if (-x $file && (($d) = stat(_)) && $d < 0) {
print "$file is executable NFS file\n";
}
(This works on machines only for which the device number is negative under
NFS.)
Because the mode contains both the file type and its permissions, you
should mask off the file type portion and (s)printf using a "%o" if you
want to see the real permissions.
$mode = (stat($filename))[2];
printf "Permissions are %04o\n", $mode & 07777;
In scalar context, "stat" returns a boolean value indicating success or
failure, and, if successful, sets the information associated with the spe-
cial filehandle "_".
The File::stat module provides a convenient, by-name access mechanism:
use File::stat;
$sb = stat($filename);
printf "File is %s, size is %s, perm %04o, mtime %s\n",
$filename, $sb->size, $sb->mode & 07777,
scalar localtime $sb->mtime;
You can import symbolic mode constants ("S_IF*") and functions ("S_IS*")
from the Fcntl module:
use Fcntl ':mode';
$mode = (stat($filename))[2];
$user_rwx = ($mode & S_IRWXU) >> 6;
$group_read = ($mode & S_IRGRP) >> 3;
$other_execute = $mode & S_IXOTH;
printf "Permissions are %04o\n", S_IMODE($mode), "\n";
$is_setuid = $mode & S_ISUID;
$is_setgid = S_ISDIR($mode);
You could write the last two using the "-u" and "-d" operators. The com-
monly available "S_IF*" constants are
# Permissions: read, write, execute, for user, group, others.
S_IRWXU S_IRUSR S_IWUSR S_IXUSR
S_IRWXG S_IRGRP S_IWGRP S_IXGRP
S_IRWXO S_IROTH S_IWOTH S_IXOTH
# Setuid/Setgid/Stickiness/SaveText.
# Note that the exact meaning of these is system dependent.
S_ISUID S_ISGID S_ISVTX S_ISTXT
# File types. Not necessarily all are available on your system.
S_IFREG S_IFDIR S_IFLNK S_IFBLK S_IFCHR S_IFIFO S_IFSOCK S_IFWHT S_ENFMT
# The following are compatibility aliases for S_IRUSR, S_IWUSR, S_IXUSR.
S_IREAD S_IWRITE S_IEXEC
and the "S_IF*" functions are
S_IMODE($mode) the part of $mode containing the permission bits
and the setuid/setgid/sticky bits
S_IFMT($mode) the part of $mode containing the file type
which can be bit-anded with e.g. S_IFREG
or with the following functions
# The operators -f, -d, -l, -b, -c, -p, and -S.
S_ISREG($mode) S_ISDIR($mode) S_ISLNK($mode)
S_ISBLK($mode) S_ISCHR($mode) S_ISFIFO($mode) S_ISSOCK($mode)
# No direct -X operator counterpart, but for the first one
# the -g operator is often equivalent. The ENFMT stands for
# record flocking enforcement, a platform-dependent feature.
S_ISENFMT($mode) S_ISWHT($mode)
See your native chmod(2) and stat(2) documentation for more details about
the "S_*" constants. To get status info for a symbolic link instead of the
target file behind the link, use the "lstat" function.
study SCALAR
study Takes extra time to study SCALAR ($_ if unspecified) in anticipation of
doing many pattern matches on the string before it is next modified. This
may or may not save time, depending on the nature and number of patterns
you are searching on, and on the distribution of character frequencies in
the string to be searched--you probably want to compare run times with and
without it to see which runs faster. Those loops that scan for many short
constant strings (including the constant parts of more complex patterns)
will benefit most. You may have only one "study" active at a time--if you
study a different scalar the first is "unstudied". (The way "study" works
is this: a linked list of every character in the string to be searched is
made, so we know, for example, where all the 'k' characters are. From each
search string, the rarest character is selected, based on some static fre-
quency tables constructed from some C programs and English text. Only
those places that contain this "rarest" character are examined.)
For example, here is a loop that inserts index producing entries before any
line containing a certain pattern:
while (<>) {
study;
print ".IX foo\n" if /\bfoo\b/;
print ".IX bar\n" if /\bbar\b/;
print ".IX blurfl\n" if /\bblurfl\b/;
# ...
print;
}
In searching for "/\bfoo\b/", only those locations in $_ that contain "f"
will be looked at, because "f" is rarer than "o". In general, this is a
big win except in pathological cases. The only question is whether it
saves you more time than it took to build the linked list in the first
place.
Note that if you have to look for strings that you don't know till runtime,
you can build an entire loop as a string and "eval" that to avoid recompil-
ing all your patterns all the time. Together with undefining $/ to input
entire files as one record, this can be very fast, often faster than spe-
cialized programs like fgrep(1). The following scans a list of files
(@files) for a list of words (@words), and prints out the names of those
files that contain a match:
$search = 'while (<>) { study;';
foreach $word (@words) {
$search .= "++\$seen{\$ARGV} if /\\b$word\\b/;\n";
}
$search .= "}";
@ARGV = @files;
undef $/;
eval $search; # this screams
$/ = "\n"; # put back to normal input delimiter
foreach $file (sort keys(%seen)) {
print $file, "\n";
}
sub NAME BLOCK
sub NAME (PROTO) BLOCK
sub NAME : ATTRS BLOCK
sub NAME (PROTO) : ATTRS BLOCK
This is subroutine definition, not a real function per se. Without a BLOCK
it's just a forward declaration. Without a NAME, it's an anonymous func-
tion declaration, and does actually return a value: the CODE ref of the
closure you just created.
See perlsub and perlref for details about subroutines and references, and
attributes and Attribute::Handlers for more information about attributes.
substr EXPR,OFFSET,LENGTH,REPLACEMENT
substr EXPR,OFFSET,LENGTH
substr EXPR,OFFSET
Extracts a substring out of EXPR and returns it. First character is at
offset 0, or whatever you've set $[ to (but don't do that). If OFFSET is
negative (or more precisely, less than $[), starts that far from the end of
the string. If LENGTH is omitted, returns everything to the end of the
string. If LENGTH is negative, leaves that many characters off the end of
the string.
You can use the substr() function as an lvalue, in which case EXPR must
itself be an lvalue. If you assign something shorter than LENGTH, the
string will shrink, and if you assign something longer than LENGTH, the
string will grow to accommodate it. To keep the string the same length you
may need to pad or chop your value using "sprintf".
If OFFSET and LENGTH specify a substring that is partly outside the string,
only the part within the string is returned. If the substring is beyond
either end of the string, substr() returns the undefined value and produces
a warning. When used as an lvalue, specifying a substring that is entirely
outside the string is a fatal error. Here's an example showing the behav-
ior for boundary cases:
my $name = 'fred';
substr($name, 4) = 'dy'; # $name is now 'freddy'
my $null = substr $name, 6, 2; # returns '' (no warning)
my $oops = substr $name, 7; # returns undef, with warning
substr($name, 7) = 'gap'; # fatal error
An alternative to using substr() as an lvalue is to specify the replacement
string as the 4th argument. This allows you to replace parts of the EXPR
and return what was there before in one operation, just as you can with
splice().
symlink OLDFILE,NEWFILE
Creates a new filename symbolically linked to the old filename. Returns 1
for success, 0 otherwise. On systems that don't support symbolic links,
produces a fatal error at run time. To check for that, use eval:
$symlink_exists = eval { symlink("",""); 1 };
syscall NUMBER, LIST
Calls the system call specified as the first element of the list, passing
the remaining elements as arguments to the system call. If unimplemented,
produces a fatal error. The arguments are interpreted as follows: if a
given argument is numeric, the argument is passed as an int. If not, the
pointer to the string value is passed. You are responsible to make sure a
string is pre-extended long enough to receive any result that might be
written into a string. You can't use a string literal (or other read-only
string) as an argument to "syscall" because Perl has to assume that any
string pointer might be written through. If your integer arguments are not
literals and have never been interpreted in a numeric context, you may need
to add 0 to them to force them to look like numbers. This emulates the
"syswrite" function (or vice versa):
require 'syscall.ph'; # may need to run h2ph
$s = "hi there\n";
syscall(&SYS_write, fileno(STDOUT), $s, length $s);
Note that Perl supports passing of up to only 14 arguments to your system
call, which in practice should usually suffice.
Syscall returns whatever value returned by the system call it calls. If
the system call fails, "syscall" returns "-1" and sets $! (errno). Note
that some system calls can legitimately return "-1". The proper way to
handle such calls is to assign "$!=0;" before the call and check the value
of $! if syscall returns "-1".
There's a problem with "syscall(&SYS_pipe)": it returns the file number of
the read end of the pipe it creates. There is no way to retrieve the file
number of the other end. You can avoid this problem by using "pipe"
instead.
sysopen FILEHANDLE,FILENAME,MODE
sysopen FILEHANDLE,FILENAME,MODE,PERMS
Opens the file whose filename is given by FILENAME, and associates it with
FILEHANDLE. If FILEHANDLE is an expression, its value is used as the name
of the real filehandle wanted. This function calls the underlying operat-
ing system's "open" function with the parameters FILENAME, MODE, PERMS.
The possible values and flag bits of the MODE parameter are system-depen-
dent; they are available via the standard module "Fcntl". See the documen-
tation of your operating system's "open" to see which values and flag bits
are available. You may combine several flags using the "|"-operator.
Some of the most common values are "O_RDONLY" for opening the file in read-
only mode, "O_WRONLY" for opening the file in write-only mode, and "O_RDWR"
for opening the file in read-write mode.
For historical reasons, some values work on almost every system supported
by perl: zero means read-only, one means write-only, and two means
read/write. We know that these values do not work under OS/390 & VM/ESA
Unix and on the Macintosh; you probably don't want to use them in new code.
If the file named by FILENAME does not exist and the "open" call creates it
(typically because MODE includes the "O_CREAT" flag), then the value of
PERMS specifies the permissions of the newly created file. If you omit the
PERMS argument to "sysopen", Perl uses the octal value 0666. These permis-
sion values need to be in octal, and are modified by your process's current
"umask".
In many systems the "O_EXCL" flag is available for opening files in exclu-
sive mode. This is not locking: exclusiveness means here that if the file
already exists, sysopen() fails. "O_EXCL" may not work on network filesys-
tems, and has no effect unless the "O_CREAT" flag is set as well. Setting
"O_CREAT|O_EXCL" prevents the file from being opened if it is a symbolic
link. It does not protect against symbolic links in the file's path.
Sometimes you may want to truncate an already-existing file. This can be
done using the "O_TRUNC" flag. The behavior of "O_TRUNC" with "O_RDONLY"
is undefined.
You should seldom if ever use 0644 as argument to "sysopen", because that
takes away the user's option to have a more permissive umask. Better to
omit it. See the perlfunc(1) entry on "umask" for more on this.
Note that "sysopen" depends on the fdopen() C library function. On many
UNIX systems, fdopen() is known to fail when file descriptors exceed a cer-
tain value, typically 255. If you need more file descriptors than that,
consider rebuilding Perl to use the "sfio" library, or perhaps using the
POSIX::open() function.
See perlopentut for a kinder, gentler explanation of opening files.
sysread FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
sysread FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
Attempts to read LENGTH bytes of data into variable SCALAR from the speci-
fied FILEHANDLE, using the system call read(2). It bypasses buffered IO,
so mixing this with other kinds of reads, "print", "write", "seek", "tell",
or "eof" can cause confusion because the perlio or stdio layers usually
buffers data. Returns the number of bytes actually read, 0 at end of file,
or undef if there was an error (in the latter case $! is also set). SCALAR
will be grown or shrunk so that the last byte actually read is the last
byte of the scalar after the read.
An OFFSET may be specified to place the read data at some place in the
string other than the beginning. A negative OFFSET specifies placement at
that many characters counting backwards from the end of the string. A pos-
itive OFFSET greater than the length of SCALAR results in the string being
padded to the required size with "\0" bytes before the result of the read
is appended.
There is no syseof() function, which is ok, since eof() doesn't work very
well on device files (like ttys) anyway. Use sysread() and check for a
return value for 0 to decide whether you're done.
Note that if the filehandle has been marked as ":utf8" Unicode characters
are read instead of bytes (the LENGTH, OFFSET, and the return value of sys-
read() are in Unicode characters). The ":encoding(...)" layer implicitly
introduces the ":utf8" layer. See "binmode", "open", and the "open"
pragma, open.
sysseek FILEHANDLE,POSITION,WHENCE
Sets FILEHANDLE's system position in bytes using the system call lseek(2).
FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the filehan-
dle. The values for WHENCE are 0 to set the new position to POSITION, 1 to
set the it to the current position plus POSITION, and 2 to set it to EOF
plus POSITION (typically negative).
Note the in bytes: even if the filehandle has been set to operate on char-
acters (for example by using the ":utf8" I/O layer), tell() will return
byte offsets, not character offsets (because implementing that would render
sysseek() very slow).
sysseek() bypasses normal buffered IO, so mixing this with reads (other
than "sysread", for example "<>" or read()) "print", "write", "seek",
"tell", or "eof" may cause confusion.
For WHENCE, you may also use the constants "SEEK_SET", "SEEK_CUR", and
"SEEK_END" (start of the file, current position, end of the file) from the
Fcntl module. Use of the constants is also more portable than relying on
0, 1, and 2. For example to define a "systell" function:
use Fcntl 'SEEK_CUR';
sub systell { sysseek($_[0], 0, SEEK_CUR) }
Returns the new position, or the undefined value on failure. A position of
zero is returned as the string "0 but true"; thus "sysseek" returns true on
success and false on failure, yet you can still easily determine the new
position.
system LIST
system PROGRAM LIST
Does exactly the same thing as "exec LIST", except that a fork is done
first, and the parent process waits for the child process to complete.
Note that argument processing varies depending on the number of arguments.
If there is more than one argument in LIST, or if LIST is an array with
more than one value, starts the program given by the first element of the
list with arguments given by the rest of the list. If there is only one
scalar argument, the argument is checked for shell metacharacters, and if
there are any, the entire argument is passed to the system's command shell
for parsing (this is "/bin/sh -c" on Unix platforms, but varies on other
platforms). If there are no shell metacharacters in the argument, it is
split into words and passed directly to "execvp", which is more efficient.
Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for out-
put before any operation that may do a fork, but this may not be supported
on some platforms (see perlport). To be safe, you may need to set $|
($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the "autoflush()" method of "IO::Handle" on
any open handles.
The return value is the exit status of the program as returned by the
"wait" call. To get the actual exit value, shift right by eight (see
below). See also "exec". This is not what you want to use to capture the
output from a command, for that you should use merely backticks or "qx//",
as described in "'STRING'" in perlop. Return value of -1 indicates a fail-
ure to start the program or an error of the wait(2) system call (inspect $!
for the reason).
Like "exec", "system" allows you to lie to a program about its name if you
use the "system PROGRAM LIST" syntax. Again, see "exec".
Since "SIGINT" and "SIGQUIT" are ignored during the execution of "system",
if you expect your program to terminate on receipt of these signals you
will need to arrange to do so yourself based on the return value.
@args = ("command", "arg1", "arg2");
system(@args) == 0
or die "system @args failed: $?"
You can check all the failure possibilities by inspecting $? like this:
if ($? == -1) {
print "failed to execute: $!\n";
}
elsif ($? & 127) {
printf "child died with signal %d, %s coredump\n",
($? & 127), ($? & 128) ? 'with' : 'without';
}
else {
printf "child exited with value %d\n", $? >> 8;
}
or more portably by using the W*() calls of the POSIX extension; see perl-
port for more information.
When the arguments get executed via the system shell, results and return
codes will be subject to its quirks and capabilities. See "'STRING'" in
perlop and "exec" for details.
syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR
Attempts to write LENGTH bytes of data from variable SCALAR to the speci-
fied FILEHANDLE, using the system call write(2). If LENGTH is not speci-
fied, writes whole SCALAR. It bypasses buffered IO, so mixing this with
reads (other than sysread()), "print", "write", "seek", "tell", or "eof"
may cause confusion because the perlio and stdio layers usually buffers
data. Returns the number of bytes actually written, or "undef" if there
was an error (in this case the errno variable $! is also set). If the
LENGTH is greater than the available data in the SCALAR after the OFFSET,
only as much data as is available will be written.
An OFFSET may be specified to write the data from some part of the string
other than the beginning. A negative OFFSET specifies writing that many
characters counting backwards from the end of the string. In the case the
SCALAR is empty you can use OFFSET but only zero offset.
Note that if the filehandle has been marked as ":utf8", Unicode characters
are written instead of bytes (the LENGTH, OFFSET, and the return value of
syswrite() are in UTF-8 encoded Unicode characters). The ":encoding(...)"
layer implicitly introduces the ":utf8" layer. See "binmode", "open", and
the "open" pragma, open.
tell FILEHANDLE
tell Returns the current position in bytes for FILEHANDLE, or -1 on error.
FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the actual
filehandle. If FILEHANDLE is omitted, assumes the file last read.
Note the in bytes: even if the filehandle has been set to operate on char-
acters (for example by using the ":utf8" open layer), tell() will return
byte offsets, not character offsets (because that would render seek() and
tell() rather slow).
The return value of tell() for the standard streams like the STDIN depends
on the operating system: it may return -1 or something else. tell() on
pipes, fifos, and sockets usually returns -1.
There is no "systell" function. Use "sysseek(FH, 0, 1)" for that.
Do not use tell() (or other buffered I/O operations) on a file handle that
has been manipulated by sysread(), syswrite() or sysseek(). Those func-
tions ignore the buffering, while tell() does not.
telldir DIRHANDLE
Returns the current position of the "readdir" routines on DIRHANDLE. Value
may be given to "seekdir" to access a particular location in a directory.
"telldir" has the same caveats about possible directory compaction as the
corresponding system library routine.
tie VARIABLE,CLASSNAME,LIST
This function binds a variable to a package class that will provide the
implementation for the variable. VARIABLE is the name of the variable to
be enchanted. CLASSNAME is the name of a class implementing objects of
correct type. Any additional arguments are passed to the "new" method of
the class (meaning "TIESCALAR", "TIEHANDLE", "TIEARRAY", or "TIEHASH").
Typically these are arguments such as might be passed to the "dbm_open()"
function of C. The object returned by the "new" method is also returned by
the "tie" function, which would be useful if you want to access other meth-
ods in CLASSNAME.
Note that functions such as "keys" and "values" may return huge lists when
used on large objects, like DBM files. You may prefer to use the "each"
function to iterate over such. Example:
# print out history file offsets
use NDBM_File;
tie(%HIST, 'NDBM_File', '/usr/lib/news/history', 1, 0);
while (($key,$val) = each %HIST) {
print $key, ' = ', unpack('L',$val), "\n";
}
untie(%HIST);
A class implementing a hash should have the following methods:
TIEHASH classname, LIST
FETCH this, key
STORE this, key, value
DELETE this, key
CLEAR this
EXISTS this, key
FIRSTKEY this
NEXTKEY this, lastkey
SCALAR this
DESTROY this
UNTIE this
A class implementing an ordinary array should have the following methods:
TIEARRAY classname, LIST
FETCH this, key
STORE this, key, value
FETCHSIZE this
STORESIZE this, count
CLEAR this
PUSH this, LIST
POP this
SHIFT this
UNSHIFT this, LIST
SPLICE this, offset, length, LIST
EXTEND this, count
DESTROY this
UNTIE this
A class implementing a file handle should have the following methods:
TIEHANDLE classname, LIST
READ this, scalar, length, offset
READLINE this
GETC this
WRITE this, scalar, length, offset
PRINT this, LIST
PRINTF this, format, LIST
BINMODE this
EOF this
FILENO this
SEEK this, position, whence
TELL this
OPEN this, mode, LIST
CLOSE this
DESTROY this
UNTIE this
A class implementing a scalar should have the following methods:
TIESCALAR classname, LIST
FETCH this,
STORE this, value
DESTROY this
UNTIE this
Not all methods indicated above need be implemented. See perltie,
Tie::Hash, Tie::Array, Tie::Scalar, and Tie::Handle.
Unlike "dbmopen", the "tie" function will not use or require a module for
you--you need to do that explicitly yourself. See DB_File or the Config
module for interesting "tie" implementations.
For further details see perltie, "tied VARIABLE".
tied VARIABLE
Returns a reference to the object underlying VARIABLE (the same value that
was originally returned by the "tie" call that bound the variable to a
package.) Returns the undefined value if VARIABLE isn't tied to a package.
time Returns the number of non-leap seconds since whatever time the system con-
siders to be the epoch, suitable for feeding to "gmtime" and "localtime".
On most systems the epoch is 00:00:00 UTC, January 1, 1970; a prominent
exception being Mac OS Classic which uses 00:00:00, January 1, 1904 in the
current local time zone for its epoch.
For measuring time in better granularity than one second, you may use
either the Time::HiRes module (from CPAN, and starting from Perl 5.8 part
of the standard distribution), or if you have gettimeofday(2), you may be
able to use the "syscall" interface of Perl. See perlfaq8 for details.
times Returns a four-element list giving the user and system times, in seconds,
for this process and the children of this process.
($user,$system,$cuser,$csystem) = times;
In scalar context, "times" returns $user.
tr/// The transliteration operator. Same as "y///". See perlop.
truncate FILEHANDLE,LENGTH
truncate EXPR,LENGTH
Truncates the file opened on FILEHANDLE, or named by EXPR, to the specified
length. Produces a fatal error if truncate isn't implemented on your sys-
tem. Returns true if successful, the undefined value otherwise.
The behavior is undefined if LENGTH is greater than the length of the file.
uc EXPR
uc Returns an uppercased version of EXPR. This is the internal function
implementing the "\U" escape in double-quoted strings. Respects current
LC_CTYPE locale if "use locale" in force. See perllocale and perlunicode
for more details about locale and Unicode support. It does not attempt to
do titlecase mapping on initial letters. See "ucfirst" for that.
If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
ucfirst EXPR
ucfirst Returns the value of EXPR with the first character in uppercase (titlecase
in Unicode). This is the internal function implementing the "\u" escape in
double-quoted strings. Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if "use locale" in
force. See perllocale and perlunicode for more details about locale and
Unicode support.
If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
umask EXPR
umask Sets the umask for the process to EXPR and returns the previous value. If
EXPR is omitted, merely returns the current umask.
The Unix permission "rwxr-x---" is represented as three sets of three bits,
or three octal digits: 0750 (the leading 0 indicates octal and isn't one of
the digits). The "umask" value is such a number representing disabled per-
missions bits. The permission (or "mode") values you pass "mkdir" or
"sysopen" are modified by your umask, so even if you tell "sysopen" to cre-
ate a file with permissions 0777, if your umask is 0022 then the file will
actually be created with permissions 0755. If your "umask" were 0027
(group can't write; others can't read, write, or execute), then passing
"sysopen" 0666 would create a file with mode 0640 ("0666 &~ 027" is 0640).
Here's some advice: supply a creation mode of 0666 for regular files (in
"sysopen") and one of 0777 for directories (in "mkdir") and executable
files. This gives users the freedom of choice: if they want protected
files, they might choose process umasks of 022, 027, or even the particu-
larly antisocial mask of 077. Programs should rarely if ever make policy
decisions better left to the user. The exception to this is when writing
files that should be kept private: mail files, web browser cookies, .rhosts
files, and so on.
If umask(2) is not implemented on your system and you are trying to
restrict access for yourself (i.e., (EXPR & 0700) > 0), produces a fatal
error at run time. If umask(2) is not implemented and you are not trying
to restrict access for yourself, returns "undef".
Remember that a umask is a number, usually given in octal; it is not a
string of octal digits. See also "oct", if all you have is a string.
undef EXPR
undef Undefines the value of EXPR, which must be an lvalue. Use only on a scalar
value, an array (using "@"), a hash (using "%"), a subroutine (using "&"),
or a typeglob (using "*"). (Saying "undef $hash{$key}" will probably not
do what you expect on most predefined variables or DBM list values, so
don't do that; see delete.) Always returns the undefined value. You can
omit the EXPR, in which case nothing is undefined, but you still get an
undefined value that you could, for instance, return from a subroutine,
assign to a variable or pass as a parameter. Examples:
undef $foo;
undef $bar{'blurfl'}; # Compare to: delete $bar{'blurfl'};
undef @ary;
undef %hash;
undef &mysub;
undef *xyz; # destroys $xyz, @xyz, %xyz, &xyz, etc.
return (wantarray ? (undef, $errmsg) : undef) if $they_blew_it;
select undef, undef, undef, 0.25;
($a, $b, undef, $c) = &foo; # Ignore third value returned
Note that this is a unary operator, not a list operator.
unlink LIST
unlink Deletes a list of files. Returns the number of files successfully deleted.
$cnt = unlink 'a', 'b', 'c';
unlink @goners;
unlink <*.bak>;
Note: "unlink" will not attempt to delete directories unless you are supe-
ruser and the -U flag is supplied to Perl. Even if these conditions are
met, be warned that unlinking a directory can inflict damage on your
filesystem. Finally, using "unlink" on directories is not supported on
many operating systems. Use "rmdir" instead.
If LIST is omitted, uses $_.
unpack TEMPLATE,EXPR
"unpack" does the reverse of "pack": it takes a string and expands it out
into a list of values. (In scalar context, it returns merely the first
value produced.)
The string is broken into chunks described by the TEMPLATE. Each chunk is
converted separately to a value. Typically, either the string is a result
of "pack", or the bytes of the string represent a C structure of some kind.
The TEMPLATE has the same format as in the "pack" function. Here's a sub-
routine that does substring:
sub substr {
my($what,$where,$howmuch) = @_;
unpack("x$where a$howmuch", $what);
}
and then there's
sub ordinal { unpack("c",$_[0]); } # same as ord()
In addition to fields allowed in pack(), you may prefix a field with a
%<number> to indicate that you want a <number>-bit checksum of the items
instead of the items themselves. Default is a 16-bit checksum. Checksum
is calculated by summing numeric values of expanded values (for string
fields the sum of "ord($char)" is taken, for bit fields the sum of zeroes
and ones).
For example, the following computes the same number as the System V sum
program:
$checksum = do {
local $/; # slurp!
unpack("%32C*",<>) % 65535;
};
The following efficiently counts the number of set bits in a bit vector:
$setbits = unpack("%32b*", $selectmask);
The "p" and "P" formats should be used with care. Since Perl has no way of
checking whether the value passed to "unpack()" corresponds to a valid mem-
ory location, passing a pointer value that's not known to be valid is
likely to have disastrous consequences.
If there are more pack codes or if the repeat count of a field or a group
is larger than what the remainder of the input string allows, the result is
not well defined: in some cases, the repeat count is decreased, or
"unpack()" will produce null strings or zeroes, or terminate with an error.
If the input string is longer than one described by the TEMPLATE, the rest
is ignored.
See "pack" for more examples and notes.
untie VARIABLE
Breaks the binding between a variable and a package. (See "tie".) Has no
effect if the variable is not tied.
unshift ARRAY,LIST
Does the opposite of a "shift". Or the opposite of a "push", depending on
how you look at it. Prepends list to the front of the array, and returns
the new number of elements in the array.
unshift(@ARGV, '-e') unless $ARGV[0] =~ /^-/;
Note the LIST is prepended whole, not one element at a time, so the
prepended elements stay in the same order. Use "reverse" to do the
reverse.
use Module VERSION LIST
use Module VERSION
use Module LIST
use Module
use VERSION
Imports some semantics into the current package from the named module, gen-
erally by aliasing certain subroutine or variable names into your package.
It is exactly equivalent to
BEGIN { require Module; import Module LIST; }
except that Module must be a bareword.
VERSION may be either a numeric argument such as 5.006, which will be com-
pared to $], or a literal of the form v5.6.1, which will be compared to $^V
(aka $PERL_VERSION. A fatal error is produced if VERSION is greater than
the version of the current Perl interpreter; Perl will not attempt to parse
the rest of the file. Compare with "require", which can do a similar check
at run time.
Specifying VERSION as a literal of the form v5.6.1 should generally be
avoided, because it leads to misleading error messages under earlier ver-
sions of Perl that do not support this syntax. The equivalent numeric ver-
sion should be used instead.
use v5.6.1; # compile time version check
use 5.6.1; # ditto
use 5.006_001; # ditto; preferred for backwards compatibility
This is often useful if you need to check the current Perl version before
"use"ing library modules that have changed in incompatible ways from older
versions of Perl. (We try not to do this more than we have to.)
The "BEGIN" forces the "require" and "import" to happen at compile time.
The "require" makes sure the module is loaded into memory if it hasn't been
yet. The "import" is not a builtin--it's just an ordinary static method
call into the "Module" package to tell the module to import the list of
features back into the current package. The module can implement its
"import" method any way it likes, though most modules just choose to derive
their "import" method via inheritance from the "Exporter" class that is
defined in the "Exporter" module. See Exporter. If no "import" method can
be found then the call is skipped.
If you do not want to call the package's "import" method (for instance, to
stop your namespace from being altered), explicitly supply the empty list:
use Module ();
That is exactly equivalent to
BEGIN { require Module }
If the VERSION argument is present between Module and LIST, then the "use"
will call the VERSION method in class Module with the given version as an
argument. The default VERSION method, inherited from the UNIVERSAL class,
croaks if the given version is larger than the value of the variable $Mod-
ule::VERSION.
Again, there is a distinction between omitting LIST ("import" called with
no arguments) and an explicit empty LIST "()" ("import" not called). Note
that there is no comma after VERSION!
Because this is a wide-open interface, pragmas (compiler directives) are
also implemented this way. Currently implemented pragmas are:
use constant;
use diagnostics;
use integer;
use sigtrap qw(SEGV BUS);
use strict qw(subs vars refs);
use subs qw(afunc blurfl);
use warnings qw(all);
use sort qw(stable _quicksort _mergesort);
Some of these pseudo-modules import semantics into the current block scope
(like "strict" or "integer", unlike ordinary modules, which import symbols
into the current package (which are effective through the end of the file).
There's a corresponding "no" command that unimports meanings imported by
"use", i.e., it calls "unimport Module LIST" instead of "import".
no integer;
no strict 'refs';
no warnings;
See perlmodlib for a list of standard modules and pragmas. See perlrun for
the "-M" and "-m" command-line options to perl that give "use" functional-
ity from the command-line.
utime LIST
Changes the access and modification times on each file of a list of files.
The first two elements of the list must be the NUMERICAL access and modifi-
cation times, in that order. Returns the number of files successfully
changed. The inode change time of each file is set to the current time.
For example, this code has the same effect as the Unix touch(1) command
when the files already exist and belong to the user running the program:
#!/usr/bin/perl
$atime = $mtime = time;
utime $atime, $mtime, @ARGV;
Since perl 5.7.2, if the first two elements of the list are "undef", then
the utime(2) function in the C library will be called with a null second
argument. On most systems, this will set the file's access and modification
times to the current time (i.e. equivalent to the example above) and will
even work on other users' files where you have write permission:
utime undef, undef, @ARGV;
Under NFS this will use the time of the NFS server, not the time of the
local machine. If there is a time synchronization problem, the NFS server
and local machine will have different times. The Unix touch(1) command
will in fact normally use this form instead of the one shown in the first
example.
Note that only passing one of the first two elements as "undef" will be
equivalent of passing it as 0 and will not have the same effect as
described when they are both "undef". This case will also trigger an
uninitialized warning.
values HASH
Returns a list consisting of all the values of the named hash. (In a
scalar context, returns the number of values.)
The values are returned in an apparently random order. The actual random
order is subject to change in future versions of perl, but it is guaranteed
to be the same order as either the "keys" or "each" function would produce
on the same (unmodified) hash. Since Perl 5.8.1 the ordering is different
even between different runs of Perl for security reasons (see "Algorithmic
Complexity Attacks" in perlsec).
As a side effect, calling values() resets the HASH's internal iterator, see
"each". (In particular, calling values() in void context resets the itera-
tor with no other overhead.)
Note that the values are not copied, which means modifying them will modify
the contents of the hash:
for (values %hash) { s/foo/bar/g } # modifies %hash values
for (@hash{keys %hash}) { s/foo/bar/g } # same
See also "keys", "each", and "sort".
vec EXPR,OFFSET,BITS
Treats the string in EXPR as a bit vector made up of elements of width
BITS, and returns the value of the element specified by OFFSET as an
unsigned integer. BITS therefore specifies the number of bits that are
reserved for each element in the bit vector. This must be a power of two
from 1 to 32 (or 64, if your platform supports that).
If BITS is 8, "elements" coincide with bytes of the input string.
If BITS is 16 or more, bytes of the input string are grouped into chunks of
size BITS/8, and each group is converted to a number as with
pack()/unpack() with big-endian formats "n"/"N" (and analogously for
BITS==64). See "pack" for details.
If bits is 4 or less, the string is broken into bytes, then the bits of
each byte are broken into 8/BITS groups. Bits of a byte are numbered in a
little-endian-ish way, as in 0x01, 0x02, 0x04, 0x08, 0x10, 0x20, 0x40,
0x80. For example, breaking the single input byte "chr(0x36)" into two
groups gives a list "(0x6, 0x3)"; breaking it into 4 groups gives "(0x2,
0x1, 0x3, 0x0)".
"vec" may also be assigned to, in which case parentheses are needed to give
the expression the correct precedence as in
vec($image, $max_x * $x + $y, 8) = 3;
If the selected element is outside the string, the value 0 is returned. If
an element off the end of the string is written to, Perl will first extend
the string with sufficiently many zero bytes. It is an error to try to
write off the beginning of the string (i.e. negative OFFSET).
The string should not contain any character with the value > 255 (which can
only happen if you're using UTF-8 encoding). If it does, it will be
treated as something that is not UTF-8 encoded. When the "vec" was
assigned to, other parts of your program will also no longer consider the
string to be UTF-8 encoded. In other words, if you do have such characters
in your string, vec() will operate on the actual byte string, and not the
conceptual character string.
Strings created with "vec" can also be manipulated with the logical opera-
tors "|", "&", "^", and "~". These operators will assume a bit vector
operation is desired when both operands are strings. See "Bitwise String
Operators" in perlop.
The following code will build up an ASCII string saying 'PerlPerlPerl'.
The comments show the string after each step. Note that this code works in
the same way on big-endian or little-endian machines.
my $foo = '';
vec($foo, 0, 32) = 0x5065726C; # 'Perl'
# $foo eq "Perl" eq "\x50\x65\x72\x6C", 32 bits
print vec($foo, 0, 8); # prints 80 == 0x50 == ord('P')
vec($foo, 2, 16) = 0x5065; # 'PerlPe'
vec($foo, 3, 16) = 0x726C; # 'PerlPerl'
vec($foo, 8, 8) = 0x50; # 'PerlPerlP'
vec($foo, 9, 8) = 0x65; # 'PerlPerlPe'
vec($foo, 20, 4) = 2; # 'PerlPerlPe' . "\x02"
vec($foo, 21, 4) = 7; # 'PerlPerlPer'
# 'r' is "\x72"
vec($foo, 45, 2) = 3; # 'PerlPerlPer' . "\x0c"
vec($foo, 93, 1) = 1; # 'PerlPerlPer' . "\x2c"
vec($foo, 94, 1) = 1; # 'PerlPerlPerl'
# 'l' is "\x6c"
To transform a bit vector into a string or list of 0's and 1's, use these:
$bits = unpack("b*", $vector);
@bits = split(//, unpack("b*", $vector));
If you know the exact length in bits, it can be used in place of the "*".
Here is an example to illustrate how the bits actually fall in place:
#!/usr/bin/perl -wl
print <<'EOT';
0 1 2 3
unpack("V",$_) 01234567890123456789012345678901
------------------------------------------------------------------
EOT
for $w (0..3) {
$width = 2**$w;
for ($shift=0; $shift < $width; ++$shift) {
for ($off=0; $off < 32/$width; ++$off) {
$str = pack("B*", "0"x32);
$bits = (1<<$shift);
vec($str, $off, $width) = $bits;
$res = unpack("b*",$str);
$val = unpack("V", $str);
write;
}
}
}
format STDOUT =
vec($_,@#,@#) = @<< == @######### @>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
$off, $width, $bits, $val, $res
.
__END__
Regardless of the machine architecture on which it is run, the above exam-
ple should print the following table:
0 1 2 3
unpack("V",$_) 01234567890123456789012345678901
------------------------------------------------------------------
vec($_, 0, 1) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 1, 1) = 1 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 2, 1) = 1 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 3, 1) = 1 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 4, 1) = 1 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 5, 1) = 1 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 6, 1) = 1 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 7, 1) = 1 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 8, 1) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000
vec($_, 9, 1) = 1 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000
vec($_,10, 1) = 1 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
vec($_,11, 1) = 1 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
vec($_,12, 1) = 1 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
vec($_,13, 1) = 1 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
vec($_,14, 1) = 1 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
vec($_,15, 1) = 1 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
vec($_,16, 1) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
vec($_,17, 1) = 1 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
vec($_,18, 1) = 1 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
vec($_,19, 1) = 1 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
vec($_,20, 1) = 1 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
vec($_,21, 1) = 1 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
vec($_,22, 1) = 1 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
vec($_,23, 1) = 1 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
vec($_,24, 1) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
vec($_,25, 1) = 1 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
vec($_,26, 1) = 1 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
vec($_,27, 1) = 1 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
vec($_,28, 1) = 1 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
vec($_,29, 1) = 1 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
vec($_,30, 1) = 1 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
vec($_,31, 1) = 1 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001
vec($_, 0, 2) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 1, 2) = 1 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 2, 2) = 1 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 3, 2) = 1 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 4, 2) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000
vec($_, 5, 2) = 1 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
vec($_, 6, 2) = 1 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
vec($_, 7, 2) = 1 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
vec($_, 8, 2) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
vec($_, 9, 2) = 1 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
vec($_,10, 2) = 1 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
vec($_,11, 2) = 1 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
vec($_,12, 2) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
vec($_,13, 2) = 1 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
vec($_,14, 2) = 1 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
vec($_,15, 2) = 1 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
vec($_, 0, 2) = 2 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 1, 2) = 2 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 2, 2) = 2 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 3, 2) = 2 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 4, 2) = 2 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000
vec($_, 5, 2) = 2 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
vec($_, 6, 2) = 2 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
vec($_, 7, 2) = 2 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
vec($_, 8, 2) = 2 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
vec($_, 9, 2) = 2 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
vec($_,10, 2) = 2 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
vec($_,11, 2) = 2 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
vec($_,12, 2) = 2 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
vec($_,13, 2) = 2 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
vec($_,14, 2) = 2 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
vec($_,15, 2) = 2 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001
vec($_, 0, 4) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 1, 4) = 1 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 2, 4) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000
vec($_, 3, 4) = 1 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
vec($_, 4, 4) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
vec($_, 5, 4) = 1 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
vec($_, 6, 4) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
vec($_, 7, 4) = 1 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
vec($_, 0, 4) = 2 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 1, 4) = 2 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 2, 4) = 2 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000
vec($_, 3, 4) = 2 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
vec($_, 4, 4) = 2 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
vec($_, 5, 4) = 2 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
vec($_, 6, 4) = 2 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
vec($_, 7, 4) = 2 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
vec($_, 0, 4) = 4 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 1, 4) = 4 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 2, 4) = 4 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
vec($_, 3, 4) = 4 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
vec($_, 4, 4) = 4 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
vec($_, 5, 4) = 4 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
vec($_, 6, 4) = 4 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
vec($_, 7, 4) = 4 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
vec($_, 0, 4) = 8 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 1, 4) = 8 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 2, 4) = 8 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
vec($_, 3, 4) = 8 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
vec($_, 4, 4) = 8 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
vec($_, 5, 4) = 8 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
vec($_, 6, 4) = 8 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
vec($_, 7, 4) = 8 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001
vec($_, 0, 8) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 1, 8) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000
vec($_, 2, 8) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
vec($_, 3, 8) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
vec($_, 0, 8) = 2 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 1, 8) = 2 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000
vec($_, 2, 8) = 2 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
vec($_, 3, 8) = 2 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
vec($_, 0, 8) = 4 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 1, 8) = 4 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
vec($_, 2, 8) = 4 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
vec($_, 3, 8) = 4 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
vec($_, 0, 8) = 8 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 1, 8) = 8 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
vec($_, 2, 8) = 8 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
vec($_, 3, 8) = 8 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
vec($_, 0, 8) = 16 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 1, 8) = 16 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
vec($_, 2, 8) = 16 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
vec($_, 3, 8) = 16 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
vec($_, 0, 8) = 32 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 1, 8) = 32 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
vec($_, 2, 8) = 32 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
vec($_, 3, 8) = 32 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
vec($_, 0, 8) = 64 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 1, 8) = 64 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
vec($_, 2, 8) = 64 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
vec($_, 3, 8) = 64 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
vec($_, 0, 8) = 128 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000
vec($_, 1, 8) = 128 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
vec($_, 2, 8) = 128 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
vec($_, 3, 8) = 128 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001
wait Behaves like the wait(2) system call on your system: it waits for a child
process to terminate and returns the pid of the deceased process, or "-1"
if there are no child processes. The status is returned in $?. Note that
a return value of "-1" could mean that child processes are being automati-
cally reaped, as described in perlipc.
waitpid PID,FLAGS
Waits for a particular child process to terminate and returns the pid of
the deceased process, or "-1" if there is no such child process. On some
systems, a value of 0 indicates that there are processes still running.
The status is returned in $?. If you say
use POSIX ":sys_wait_h";
#...
do {
$kid = waitpid(-1, WNOHANG);
} until $kid > 0;
then you can do a non-blocking wait for all pending zombie processes. Non-
blocking wait is available on machines supporting either the waitpid(2) or
wait4(2) system calls. However, waiting for a particular pid with FLAGS of
0 is implemented everywhere. (Perl emulates the system call by remembering
the status values of processes that have exited but have not been harvested
by the Perl script yet.)
Note that on some systems, a return value of "-1" could mean that child
processes are being automatically reaped. See perlipc for details, and for
other examples.
wantarray
Returns true if the context of the currently executing subroutine or "eval"
is looking for a list value. Returns false if the context is looking for a
scalar. Returns the undefined value if the context is looking for no value
(void context).
return unless defined wantarray; # don't bother doing more
my @a = complex_calculation();
return wantarray ? @a : "@a";
"wantarray()"'s result is unspecified in the top level of a file, in a
"BEGIN", "CHECK", "INIT" or "END" block, or in a "DESTROY" method.
This function should have been named wantlist() instead.
warn LIST
Produces a message on STDERR just like "die", but doesn't exit or throw an
exception.
If LIST is empty and $@ already contains a value (typically from a previous
eval) that value is used after appending "\t...caught" to $@. This is use-
ful for staying almost, but not entirely similar to "die".
If $@ is empty then the string "Warning: Something's wrong" is used.
No message is printed if there is a $SIG{__WARN__} handler installed. It
is the handler's responsibility to deal with the message as it sees fit
(like, for instance, converting it into a "die"). Most handlers must
therefore make arrangements to actually display the warnings that they are
not prepared to deal with, by calling "warn" again in the handler. Note
that this is quite safe and will not produce an endless loop, since
"__WARN__" hooks are not called from inside one.
You will find this behavior is slightly different from that of
$SIG{__DIE__} handlers (which don't suppress the error text, but can
instead call "die" again to change it).
Using a "__WARN__" handler provides a powerful way to silence all warnings
(even the so-called mandatory ones). An example:
# wipe out *all* compile-time warnings
BEGIN { $SIG{'__WARN__'} = sub { warn $_[0] if $DOWARN } }
my $foo = 10;
my $foo = 20; # no warning about duplicate my $foo,
# but hey, you asked for it!
# no compile-time or run-time warnings before here
$DOWARN = 1;
# run-time warnings enabled after here
warn "\$foo is alive and $foo!"; # does show up
See perlvar for details on setting %SIG entries, and for more examples.
See the Carp module for other kinds of warnings using its carp() and
cluck() functions.
write FILEHANDLE
write EXPR
write Writes a formatted record (possibly multi-line) to the specified FILEHAN-
DLE, using the format associated with that file. By default the format for
a file is the one having the same name as the filehandle, but the format
for the current output channel (see the "select" function) may be set
explicitly by assigning the name of the format to the $~ variable.
Top of form processing is handled automatically: if there is insufficient
room on the current page for the formatted record, the page is advanced by
writing a form feed, a special top-of-page format is used to format the new
page header, and then the record is written. By default the top-of-page
format is the name of the filehandle with "_TOP" appended, but it may be
dynamically set to the format of your choice by assigning the name to the
$^ variable while the filehandle is selected. The number of lines remain-
ing on the current page is in variable "$-", which can be set to 0 to force
a new page.
If FILEHANDLE is unspecified, output goes to the current default output
channel, which starts out as STDOUT but may be changed by the "select"
operator. If the FILEHANDLE is an EXPR, then the expression is evaluated
and the resulting string is used to look up the name of the FILEHANDLE at
run time. For more on formats, see perlform.
Note that write is not the opposite of "read". Unfortunately.
y/// The transliteration operator. Same as "tr///". See perlop.
perl v5.8.8 2006-01-07 PERLFUNC(1)
Generated by $Id: phpMan.php,v 4.54 2007/08/21 09:05:22 chedong Exp $ Author: Che Dong
On Apache/2.2.3 (CentOS)
Under GNU General Public License
2010-03-15 15:19 @127.0.0.1 CrawledBy CCBot/1.0 (+http://www.commoncrawl.org/bot.html)